Rules for Writers

A Process for Writing

          1   Exploring, planning, and drafting

                    a  Assess the writing situation.
                    b  Explore your subject.
                    c  Draft and revise a working thesis statement.
                    d  Draft a plan.
                    e  Draft an introduction.
                    f   Draft the body.
                    g  Draft a conclusion.

          2  Writing paragraphs

                    a  Focus on a main point.
                    b  Develop the main point.
                    c  Make paragraphs coherent.
                    d  If necessary, adjust paragraph length.
                    e Choose a suitable strategy for developing paragraphs.

          3   Revising, editing, and reflecting

                    a  Use peer review: Give constructive comments.
                    b  Learn from peer review: Revise with comments.
                    c   One student’s peer review process
                    d  Approach global revision in cycles.
                    e  Revise globally by making a reverse outline.
                    f   Revise and edit sentences.
                    g  Proofread and format the final manuscript.
                    h  Sample student revision: Literacy narrative
                    i   Reflect on your writing; prepare a portfolio.

Academic Reading and Writing

          4   Reading and writing critically

                    a  Read actively.
                    b  Outline a text to identify main ideas.
                    c  Summarize to deepen your understanding.
                    d  Analyze to demonstrate your critical reading.
                    e  Sample student writing: Analysis of an article

          5   Reading and writing about multimodal texts

                    a  Read a multimodal text actively.
                    b  Summarize a multimodal text to deepen your understanding.
                    c  Analyze a multimodal text to demonstrate your critical reading.
                    d  Sample student writing: Analysis of an advertisement

          6   Reading arguments

                    a  Read with an open mind and a critical eye.
                    b  Evaluate ethical, logical, and emotional appeals as a reader.
                    c   Evaluate the evidence behind an argument.
                    d  Identify underlying assumptions.
                    e  Evaluate how fairly a writer handles opposing views.

          7   Writing arguments

                    a  Identify your purpose and context.
                    b  View your audience as a panel of jurors.
                    c  Build common ground with your audience.
                    d  In your introduction, establish credibility and state your position.
                    e  Back up your thesis with persuasive lines of argument.
                    f  Support your thesis with specific evidence.
                    g  Anticipate objections; counter opposing arguments.
                    h  Sample student writing: Argument

Clarity

          8   Prefer active verbs.

                    a  Active versus passive verbs
                    b  Active versus be verbs
                    c  Subject that names the actor

          9   Balance parallel ideas.

                    a  Parallel ideas in a series
                    b  Parallel ideas presented as pairs
                    c  Repetition of function words

          10   Add needed words.

                    a  In compound structures
                    b  that
                    c  In comparisons
                    d  a, an, and the

          11   Untangle mixed constructions.

                    a  Mixed grammar
                    b  Illogical connections
                    c  is when, is where, and reason . . . is because

          12   Repair misplaced and dangling modifiers.

                    a  Limiting modifiers
                    b  Misplaced phrases and clauses
                    c  Awkwardly placed modifiers
                    d  Split infinitives
                    e  Dangling modifiers

          13   Eliminate distracting shifts.

                    a  Point of view (person, number)
                    b  Verb tense
                    c  Verb mood, voice
                    d  Indirect to direct questions or quotations

          14   Emphasize key ideas.

                    a  Coordination and subordination
                    b  Choppy sentences
                    c  Ineffective or excessive coordination
                    d  Ineffective subordination
                    e  Excessive subordination
                    f  Other techniques

          15   Provide some variety.

                    a  Sentence openings
                    b  Sentence structures
                    c  Inverted order

          16   Tighten wordy sentences.

                    a  Redundancies
                    b  Unnecessary repetition
                    c  Empty or inflated phrases
                    d  Simplifying the structure
                    e  Reducing clauses to phrases, phrases to single words

          17   Choose appropriate language.

                    a  Levels of formality
                    b  Jargon
                    c  Euphemisms and “doublespeak”
                    d  Slang
                    e  Sexist and noninclusive language
                    f   Biased language

          18   Find the exact words.

                    a  Connotations
                    b  Specific, concrete nouns
                    c  Standard idioms
                    d  Clichés
                    e  Figures of speech
                    f  Glossary of usage

Grammar

          19   Repair sentence fragments.

                    a  Subordinate clauses
                    b  Phrases
                    c  Other fragmented word groups
                    d  Acceptable fragments

          20   Revise run-on sentences.

                    a  Revision with coordinating conjunction
                    b  Revision with semicolon, colon, or dash
                    c  Revision by separating sentences
                    d  Revision by restructuring

          21   Make subjects and verbs agree.

                    a  Standard subject-verb combinations
                    b  Words between subject and verb
                    c   Subjects joined with and
                    d  Subjects joined with or, nor, either . . . or, or neither . . . nor
                    e  Indefinite pronouns
                    f   Collective nouns
                    g  Subject following verb
                    h  Subject, not subject complement
                    i   who, which, and that
                    j   Words with plural form, singular meaning
                    k  Titles of works, company names, words mentioned as words, gerund phrases

          22   Make pronouns and antecedents agree.

                    a  Indefinite pronouns, generic nouns
                    b  Collective nouns
                    c  Compound antecedents

          23   Make pronoun references clear.

                    a  Ambiguous or remote reference
                    b  Broad reference with this, that, which, and it
                    c  Implied antecedents
                    d  Indefinite use of they, it, and you
                    e  who for persons, which or that for things

          24   Distinguish between pronouns such as I and me.

                    a  Subjective case for subjects and subject complements
                    b  Objective case for objects
                    c  Appositives
                    d  Pronoun following than or as
                    e  Subjects and objects of infinitives
                    f   Pronoun modifying a gerund

          25   Distinguish between who and whom.

                    a  In subordinate clauses
                    b  In questions
                    c  As subjects or objects of infinitives

          26   Choose adjectives and adverbs with care.

                    a  Adjectives to modify nouns
                    b Adverbs to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs
                    c  good and well, bad and badly
                    d  Comparatives and superlatives
                    e  Double negatives

          27   Choose appropriate verb forms, tenses, and moods.

                    a  Irregular verbs
                    b  lie and lay
                    c  -s (or -es) endings
                    d  -ed endings
                    e  Omitted verbs
                    f   Verb tense
                    g  Subjunctive mood

Multilingual Writers and ESL Topics

          28   Verbs

                    a  Appropriate form and tense
                    b  Passive voice
                    c  Base form after a modal
                    d  Negative verb forms
                    e  Verbs in conditional sentences
                    f   Verbs followed by gerunds or infinitives

          29   Articles (a, an, the)

                    a  Articles and other noun markers
                    b  When to use the
                    c  When to use a or an
                    d  When not to use a or an
                    e  No articles with general nouns
                    f   Articles with proper nouns

          30   Sentence structure

                    a  Linking verb between a subject and its complement
                    b  A subject in every sentence
                    c  Repeated nouns or pronouns with the same grammatical function
                    d  Repeated subjects, objects, and adverbs in adjective clauses
                    e  Placement of adverbs
                    f  Present participles and past participles as adjectives
                    g  Order of cumulative adjectives

          31   Prepositions and idiomatic expressions

                    a  Prepositions showing time and place
                    b  Noun (including -ing form) after a preposition
                    c  Common adjective + preposition combinations
                    d  Common verb + preposition combinations

          32   Paraphrasing sources effectively

                    a  Avoiding synonyms
                    b  Determining a source’s meaning
                    c  Presenting meaning in your own words

Punctuation

          33   The comma

                    a  Independent clauses joined with and, but, etc.
                    b  Introductory elements
                    c  Items in a series
                    d  Coordinate adjectives
                    e  Nonrestrictive and restrictive elements
                    f  Transitional expressions and other word groups
                    g  Direct address, yes and no, interrogative tags, interjections
                    h  he said etc.
                    i   Dates, addresses, titles, numbers

          34   Unnecessary commas

                    a  Between two words, phrases, or subordinate clauses
                    b  Between a verb and its subject or object
                    c  Before the first or after the last item in a series
                    d  Between cumulative adjectives, an adjective and a noun, or an adverb and an adjective
                    e  Before and after restrictive or parenthetical elements
                    f   Before essential concluding adverbial elements
                    g  After a phrase beginning an inverted sentence
                    h  Other misuses

          35   The semicolon

                    a  Between independent clauses not joined with a coordinating conjunction
                    b  Between independent clauses linked with a transitional expression
                    c  In a series containing internal punctuation
                    d  Misuses

          36   The colon

                    a  Before a list, an appositive, or a quotation
                    b  Conventional uses
                    c  Misuses

          37   The apostrophe

                    a  Possessive nouns
                    b  Possessive indefinite pronouns
                    c  Contractions
                    d  Not for plural numbers, letters, abbreviations, words as words
                    e  Misuses

          38   Quotation marks

                    a  Direct quotations
                    b  Quotation within a quotation
                    c  Titles of short works
                    d  Words as words
                    e  With other punctuation marks
                    f   Misuses

          39   End punctuation

                    a  The period
                    b  The question mark
                    c  The exclamation point

          40   Other punctuation marks

                    a  The dash
                    b  Parentheses
                    c  Brackets
                    d  The ellipsis mark
                    e  The slash

Mechanics

          41   Abbreviations

                    a  Titles with proper names
                    b  Familiar abbreviations
                    c  Conventional abbreviations
                    d  Units of measurement
                    e  Latin abbreviations
                    f   Plural of abbreviations

          42   Numbers

                    a  Spelling out
                    b  Using numerals

          43   Italics

                    a  Titles of works
                    b  Non-English words
                    c  Words as words, letters as letters, numbers as numbers

          44   Spelling

                    a  Spelling rules
                    b  Words that sound alike

          45   Hyphenation

                    a  Compound words
                    b  Hyphenated adjectives
                    c  Fractions and compound numbers
                    d  With certain prefixes and suffixes
                    e  To avoid ambiguity or to separate awkward double or triple letters
                    f   Word division

          46   Capitalization

                    a  Proper vs. common nouns
                    b  Titles with proper names
                    c  Titles and subtitles of works
                    d  First word of a sentence
                    e  First word of a quoted sentence
                    f   First word after a colon

Grammar Basics

          47   Parts of speech

                    a  Nouns
                    b  Pronouns
                    c  Verbs
                    d  Adjectives
                    e  Adverbs
                    f   Prepositions
                    g  Conjunctions
                    h  Interjections

          48   Sentence patterns

                    a  Subjects
                    b  Verbs, objects, and complements

          49   Subordinate word groups

                    a  Prepositional phrases
                    b  Verbal phrases
                    c  Appositive phrases
                    d  Absolute phrases
                    e  Subordinate clauses

          50   Sentence types

                    a  Sentence structures
                    b  Sentence purposes

Research

          51   Thinking like a researcher; gathering sources

                    a  Manage the project.
                    b  Pose questions worth exploring.
                    c  Map out a search strategy.
                    d  Search efficiently; master a few shortcuts to finding good sources.
                    e  Write a research proposal.
                    f   Conduct field research, if appropriate.

          52   Managing information; taking notes responsibly

                    a  Maintain a working bibliography.
                    b  Keep track of source materials.
                    c  As you take notes, avoid unintentional plagiarism.

          53   Evaluating sources

                    a  Evaluate the reliability and usefulness of a source.
                    b  Read with an open mind and a critical eye.
                    c  Assess web sources with care.
                    d  Construct an annotated bibliography.

Writing Papers in MLA Style

          54   Supporting a thesis

                    a  Form a working thesis statement.
                    b  Organize ideas with an informal plan.
                    c  Consider how sources will contribute to your research paper.

          55   Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism

                    a  Understand how the MLA system works.
                    b  Understand what plagiarism is.
                    c  Use quotation marks around borrowed language.
                    d  Put summaries and paraphrases in your own words.

          56   Integrating sources

                    a  Summarize and paraphrase effectively.
                    b  Use quotations effectively.
                    c  Use signal phrases to integrate sources.
                    d  Synthesize sources.

          57   Documenting sources in MLA style

                    a  MLA in-text citations
                    b  MLA list of works cited
                    c  MLA information notes

          58   MLA format; sample research paper

                    a  MLA format
                    b  Sample MLA research paper

Writing Papers in APA Style

          59   Supporting a thesis

                    a  Form a working thesis statement.
                    b  Organize ideas with an informal plan.
                    c  Consider how sources will contribute to your research paper.

          60   Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism

                    a  Understand how the APA system works.
                    b  Understand what plagiarism is.
                    c  Use quotation marks around borrowed language.
                    d  Put summaries and paraphrases in your own words.

          61   Integrating sources

                    a  Summarize and paraphrase effectively.
                    b  Use quotations effectively.
                    c  Use signal phrases to integrate sources.
                    d  Synthesize sources.

          62   Documenting sources in APA style

                    a  APA in-text citations
                    b  APA list of references

          63   APA format; sample research paper

                    a  APA format
                    b  Sample APA research paper

Appendix

          Models of professional writing