How to Write Anything

New selections are indicated with an asterisk (*).

 

Part 1: Concepts of College Writing
1 Academic Goals and Expectations

          Know that writing is more than avoiding grammar errors
          Don’t make writing harder than it is
          Take advantage of your instructor’s office hour
          Use the writing center
          Think of writing as a process
          Think of yourself as a writer
          VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Use the Writing Center

2 Defining Genres and Purposes

          Appreciate what genres are
          Understand why writers rely on genres
          Using genres to meet assignments
          Understand subgenres
          Genres and subgenres in How to Write Anything

3 Imagining Audiences

          Consider what your audiences expect
          Consider who else your readers might be
          Make adjustments for your readers
          Define who your readers should be

4 Understanding Style and Design

          Appreciate the choices you have
          Strive for clarity in academic writing
          Use language that respects audiences
          Appreciate that design is part of style

 

Part 2: Key Academic Genres
5 Narratives

          Defining the genre

                    Make a point — usually
                    Tell a story
                    Offer details
                    Focus on people
                    LITERACY NARRATIVE: Laura Grisham, Literacy Narrative

          Claiming a topic

                    Brainstorm
                    Choose a manageable subject
                    Choose a consequential subject
                    Choose a puzzling subject

          Imagining your audience

                    Gathering materials
                    Talk to the people involved
                    Trust your experiences
                    Consult personal documents

          Organizing ideas

                    Consider a conventional structure
                    Build toward a climax
                    Give your readers directions
                    Use headings and transitions

          Choosing a style and design

                    Don’t hesitate to use first person
                    Use figures of speech, such as similes, metaphors, and analogies, to make memorable comparisons
                    In choosing verbs, favor active rather than passive voice
                    Keep the language simple

          Examining models

                    ARGUMENTATIVE NARRATIVE: Leah Vann, Bald Is NOT Beautiful
                    PERSONAL STATEMENT: Michael Villaverde, Application Essay for Academic Service Partnership Foundation Internship
                    Assignments

6 Reports

          Defining the genre

                    Present information
                    Find reliable sources
                    Aim for objectivity
                    Present information clearly        
                    FEATURE STORY: Cat Vasko, Grocery Store Economics: Why Are Rotisserie Chickens So Cheap?

          Claiming a topic

                    Answer questions
                    Review what is already known about a subject
                    Report new knowledge

          Imagining your audience

                    Suppose you are the expert
                    Suppose you are the novice
                    Suppose you are the peer

          Gathering materials

                    Base reports on the best available sources
                    Base reports on diverse sources
                    Fact-check your report

          Organizing ideas

                    Organize by date, time, or sequence
                    Organize by magnitude or order of importance
                    Organize by division
                    Organize by classification
                    Organize by position, location, or space
                    Organize by definition
                    Organize by comparison/contrast
                    Organize by thesis statement

          Choosing style and design

                    Present the facts cleanly
                    Keep out of it
                    Avoid connotative language
                    Pay attention to elements of design

          Examining models

                    ACADEMIC RESEARCH REPORT: Susan Wilcox, Marathons for Women
                    *INFOGRAPHIC: Australian Academy of Science, Noise Pollution and Animals
                    Assignments

7 Explanations

          Defining the genre

                    Don’t jump to conclusions
                    Appreciate your limits
                    Offer sufficient evidence for claims
                    *CAUSAL ANALYSIS: Kendall Powell, What Electronic Games Can Teach Us

          Claiming a topic

                    Look again at a subject you know well
                    Look for an issue new to you
                    Examine a local issue
                    Choose a challenging subject
                    Tackle an issue that seems settled

          Imagining your audience

                    Create an audience
                    Write to an existing audience

          Gathering materials

                    Understand necessary causes
                    Understand sufficient causes
                    Understand precipitating causes
                    Understand proximate causes
                    Understand remote causes
                    Understand reciprocal causes

          Organizing ideas

                    Explain why something happened
                    Explain the consequences of a phenomenon
                    Suggest an alternative explanation
                    Explain a chain of causes

          Choosing style and design

                    Consider a middle style
                    Use appropriate supporting media

          Examining models

                    RESEARCH STUDY: Alysha Behn, Where Have All the Women Gone?
                    *FLOW DIAGRAM: U.S. Department of Transportation, Connected Vehicles
                    Assignments

8 Arguments    

          Defining the genre

                    Offer levelheaded and disputable claims
                    Offer good reasons to support a claim
                    Understand opposing claims and points of view
                    Frame arguments powerfully—and not in words only
                    *ARGUMENT TO ADVANCE A THESIS: Seth Templeton, An Open Letter to a Protester from a Baltimore County Police Officer

          Claiming a topic

                    State a preliminary claim, if only for yourself
                    Qualify your claim to make it reasonable
                    Examine your core assumptions

          Imagining your audience

                    Consider and control your ethos
                    Consider self-imposed limits
                    Consider the worlds of your readers

          Gathering materials

                    List your reasons
                    Assemble your hard evidence
                    Cull the best quotations
                    Find counterarguments
                    Consider emotional appeals

          Organizing ideas

                    Make a point or build toward one
                    Spell out what’s at stake
                    Address counterpoints when necessary, not in a separate section
                    Save your best arguments for the end

          Choosing style and design

                    Invite readers with a strong opening
                    Write vibrant sentences
                    Ask rhetorical questions
                    Use images and design to make a point

          Examining a model

                    REFUTATION ARGUMENT: Ryan Young, Self-Driving Cars: A Reality Check
                    Assignments

9 Evaluations

          Defining the genre

                    Explain your mission
                    Establish and defend criteria
                    Offer convincing evidence
                    Offer worthwhile advice
                    CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Megan McArdle, Serena Williams Is Not the Best Tennis Player

          Claiming a topic

                    Evaluate a subject you know well
                    Evaluate a subject you need to investigate
                    Evaluate a subject you’d like to know more about
                    Evaluate a subject that’s been on your mind

          Imagining your audience

                    Write for experts
                    Write for a general audience
                    Write for novices

          Gathering materials

                    Decide on your criteria
                    Look for hard criteria
                    Argue for criteria that can’t be measured
                    Stand by your values
                    Gather your evidence

          Organizing ideas

                    Choose a simple structure when your criteria and categories are predictable
                    Choose a focal point
                    Compare and contrast

          Choosing a style and design

                    Use a high or formal style
                    Use a middle style
                    Use a low style
                    Present evaluations visually

          Examining models

                    *MOVIE REVIEW: Roger Ebert, Review of  Do The Right Thing 
                    SOCIAL SATIRE/VISUAL ARGUMENT: Andy Singer, Intravenous Smartphones
                    Assignments

10 Proposals

          Defining the genre

                    Define a problem
                    Make specific recommendations
                    Target the proposal
                    Consider plausible alternatives
                    Make realistic recommendations
                    TRIAL BALLOON: Glenn Harlan Reynolds, To Reduce Inequality, Abolish Ivy League

          Claiming a topic

                    Look for a genuine issue
                    Look for a challenging problem
                    Look for a soluble problem
                    Look for a local issue

          Understanding your audience

                    Appeal to people who can make a difference
                    Rally people who represent public opinion

          Gathering materials

                    Define the problem
                    Examine prior solutions
                    Outline a proposal
                    Defend the proposal
                    Figure out how to implement the proposal

          Organizing ideas
          Choosing style and design

                    Use a formal style
                    Use a middle style, when appropriate
                    Pay attention to elements of design

          Examining models

                    MANIFESTO: Ellen Airhart, Join the Revolution: Eat More Bugs
                    VISUAL PROPOSAL: Jen Sorensen, Pod People
                    Assignments

11 Literary Analyses

          Defining the genre

                    Begin with a close reading
                    Make a claim or an observation
                    Use texts for evidence
                    Present literature in context
                    Draw on previous research
                    CULTURAL REFLECTION: Dana Gioia, Why Literature Matters: Good Books Help Make a Civil Society

          Claiming a topic

                    Choose a text, genre, or literary/cultural perspective you connect with
                    Choose a topic you want to learn more about
                    Choose a text or topic you don’t understand

          Imagining your audience

                    Clearly identify the author and works you are analyzing
                    Define key terms
                    Don’t aim to please professional critics

          Gathering materials

                    Examine the “text” closely
                    Focus on the text itself
                    Focus on meanings, themes, and interpretations
                    Focus on authorship and history
                    Focus on genre
                    Focus on influences
                    Focus on social connections
                    Find good sources

          Organizing ideas

                    Imagine a structure
                    Work on your opening

          Choosing style and design

                    Use a formal style for most assignments
                    Use a middle style for informal or literacy narratives
                    Follow the conventions of academic literary analysis
                    Cite plays correctly                                                                 
                    Explore alternative media

          Examining a model

                    CLOSE READING: Kanaka Sathasivan, Insanity: Two Women
                    ARTS/CULTURE ANALYSIS: Soup Martinez, Review of Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Salinger
                    Assignments

12 Rhetorical Analyses

          Defining the genre

                    Take words and images seriously
                    Spend time with texts
                    Pay attention to audiences
                    Mine texts and rhetorical occasions for evidence
                    *RHETORICAL ANALYSIS: Danielle Kurtzleben, When Republicans Attack “Cancel Culture,” What Does It Mean?

          Claiming a topic

                    Make a difference
                    Choose a text you can work with
                    Choose a text you can learn more about
                    Choose a text with handles
                    Choose a text you know how to analyze

          Imagining your audience
          Gathering materials

                    Consider the ethos of the author
                    Consider how a writer plays to emotions
                    Consider how well reasoned a text is

          Organizing ideas
          Choosing style and design

                    Consider a high style
                    Consider a middle style
                    Make the text accessible to readers

          Examining models

                    *DISCOURSE/CRITICAL ANALYSIS: Bari Weiss, Resignation Letter 
                    ANALYSIS OF AN ARGUMENT: Matthew James Nance, A Mockery of Justice
                    Assignments

 

Part 3: Special College and Workplace Genres
13 Essay Examinations

          Understanding essay exams

                    Anticipate the types of questions to be asked
                    Read exam questions carefully
                    Sketch out a plan for your essay(s)
                    Organize your answers strategically
                    Offer strong evidence for your claims
                    Come to a conclusion                
                    Keep the tone serious
                    Keep your eye on the clock

          Getting the details right    

                    Use topic sentences and transitions     
                    Do a quick check of grammar, mechanics, and spelling
                    Write legibly or print

          Examining a model

                    ESSAY EXAMINATION: Wade Lamb, Essay for Classical Modern Rhetoric

14 Annotated Bibliographies

          Understanding bibliographies

                    Begin with an accurate record of research materials
                    Record every detail you will need to create an accurate citation
                    Use annotations to assess the significance or quality of the work
                    Use annotations to explain the role a work plays in your research
                    Follow a single documentation style
                    Record the information on your sources accurately
                    Keep summaries and assessments brief
                    Follow the directions carefully

          Examining a model

                    ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY: Annotated Bibliography from a Topic Proposal (Excerpt)

15 Syntheses

          Understanding synthesis papers

                    Pay close attention to the actual assignment
                    Identify reputable sources on your subject
                    Summarize and paraphrase the works you have identified
                    Look for connections between your sources
                    Provide a context for your topic
                    Tell a story
                    Acknowledge disagreements and rebuttals
                    Cite materials that both support and challenge your own thesis
                    Pay attention to language
                    Be sure to document your sources

          Examining a model

                    SYNTHESIS PAPER: Lauren Chiu, Time to Adapt?

16 Oral Presentations

          Understanding oral reports

                    Choose your subject well
                    Know your stuff
                    Highlight arresting details
                    Organize your presentation
                    Keep your audience on track
                    Stay connected to your listeners
                    Use your voice and body
                    Adapt your material to the time available
                    Practice your talk
                    Prep for the occasion

          Getting the details right

                    Be certain you need presentation software
                    Use slides to introduce points, not cover them
                    Use a simple and consistent design
                    Consider alternatives to slide-based presentations
                    Learn the rhetoric of poster sessions

          Examining a model

                    ORAL PRESENTATION: PowerPoint Presentation on Giving an Oral Report

17 Résumés

          Understanding résumés

                    Gather the necessary information
                    Decide on appropriate categories
                    Arrange the information within categories strategically
                    Design pages that are easy to read

          Getting the details right

                    Proofread every line in the résumé several times
                    Don’t leave unexplained gaps in your education or work career
                    Be consistent and efficient
                    Protect your personal data
                    Look for help

          Examining a model

                    RÉSUMÉ: Taylor Rowane

18 Emails and Business Letters

          Understanding email

                    Assess the situation
                    Explain your purpose clearly and logically
                    Tell readers what you want or expect from them
                    Write for intended audiences
                    Write for unintended audiences too
                    Keep messages brief
                    Distribute your messages sensibly

          Getting the details right: email

                    Use informative subject lines
                    Arrange your text sensibly
                    Include an appropriate signature
                    Use standard grammar
                    Check the recipient list before you hit send
                    Don’t be a pain

          Getting the details right: conventional business letters

                    Use consistent margins and spacing for print documents
                    Finesse the greeting
                    Distribute paper copies of a letter, if necessary
                    Photocopy any paper letter as a record
                    Don’t forget any promised enclosures
                    Fold a paper business letter correctly and send it in a suitable

          Examining models                                                 

                    EMAIL: Typical e-mail query
                    COVER LETTER: Typical cover letter

19 Writing Portfolios

          Understanding writing portfolios

                    Take charge of the portfolio assignment
                    Appreciate the audiences for a portfolio
                    Present authentic materials
                    Take reflections seriously

          Getting the details right

                    Polish your portfolio
                    Understand the portfolio activities
                    Give honest feedback to classmates

          Examining a model

                    WRITING PORTFOLIO: Desiree Lopez, Midterm Reflection on an Internship Course

 

Part 4: A Writer’s Routines
20 Smart Reading

          Recall the basics
          Read to deepen what you already know
          Read above your level of knowledge
          Read what makes you uncomfortable
          Read against the grain
          Read slowly
          Annotate what you read

21 Critical Thinking

          Think in terms of claims and reasons
          Think in terms of premises and assumptions
          Think in terms of evidence
          Anticipate objections
          Avoid logical fallacies

22 Claiming Topics

          Follow routines that support invention
          Browse course materials
          Search online
          Build from lists
          Map your ideas
          Try freewriting
          Use memory prompts
          VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Browse for Ideas

23 Gathering Materials

          Gather information from reputable and appropriate sources
          Use the research tools your school provides
          Look for diverse sources representing a respected range of opinion
          Pay attention to dates
          Use an adequate number of sources
          Be sure to collect and document your sources systematically

24 Shaping a Thesis

          Compose a complete sentence
          Make a significant claim or assertion
          Write a declarative sentence, not a question
          Expect your thesis to mature
          Introduce a thesis early in a project
          Or state a thesis late in a project
          Write a thesis to fit your audience and purpose

25 Developing Ideas

          Use description to set a scene
          Use division to divide a subject
          Use classification to sort objects or ideas by consistent principles
          Use definition to clarify meaning
          Use comparison and contrast to show similarity and difference

26 Organizing Ideas

          Examine model documents
          Sketch out a plan or sequence
          Try reverse outlining
          Provide cues or signals for readers
          Deliver on your commitments
          Appreciate the value in varying structure

27 Outlining

          Begin with a scratch outline
          Look for relationships
          Subordinate ideas                                                    
          Prepare a complete outline if required

28 Revising, Editing, and Proofreading

          Revise to see the big picture
          Edit to make the paper flow
          Proofread to get the details right
          VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Revise Your Work

29 Peer Reviewing

          Peer edit the same way you revise your own work
          Be specific in identifying problems or opportunities
          Offer suggestions for improvement
          Praise what is genuinely good in the paper
          Use proofreading symbols
          Keep comments tactful and confidential
          VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Insert a Comment in a Word Document

30 Overcoming Writer’s Block

          Break the project into parts
          Set manageable goals
          Create a calendar
          Limit distractions
          Do the parts you like first
          Write a zero draft
          Reward yourself

 

Part 5: Style
31 Levels of Style

          Use high style for formal, scientific, and scholarly writing
          Use middle style for personal, argumentative, and some academic writing
          Use a low style for personal, informal, and even playful writing

32 Clear and Vigorous Writing

          Build sentences around specific and tangible subjects and objects
          Look for opportunities to use specific nouns and noun phrases rather than general ones
          Avoid sprawling phrases
          Avoid sentences with long windups
          Favor simple, active verbs                                       
          Avoid strings of prepositional phrases
          Don’t repeat key words close together
          Avoid doublings
          Turn clauses into more direct modifiers
          Cut introductory expressions such as it is and there is/are when you can
          Vary your sentence lengths and structures
          Read aloud what you have written
          Cut a first draft by 25 percent—or more

33 Inclusive Writing

          Avoid expressions that stereotype genders or sexual orientation
          Avoid expressions that stereotype races, ethnic groups, or religious groups
          Handle pronouns appropriately
          Treat all people with respect
          Avoid sensational language

34 Purposeful Paragraphs

          Make sure paragraphs lead somewhere
          Develop ideas adequately
          Organize paragraphs logically
          Use paragraphs to manage transitions
          Design paragraphs for readability

35 Strategic Transitions

          Use appropriate transitional words and phrases
          Use the right word or phrase to show time or sequence
          Use sentence structure to connect ideas
          Pay attention to nouns and pronouns
          Use synonyms
          Use physical devices for transitions
          Read a draft aloud to locate weak transitions

36 Memorable Openings and Closings

          Shape an introduction
          Draw a conclusion

37 Informative Titles

          Use titles to focus documents
          Create searchable titles
          Avoid whimsical or suggestive titles
          Capitalize and punctuate titles carefully

 

Part 6: Design and Digital Media
38 Understanding Digital Media

          Choose a media format based on what you hope to accomplish
          Use social networks and blogs to create communities
          Create websites to share information
          Use wikis to collaborate with others
          Make videos and podcasts to share information
          Use maps to position ideas
          Use appropriate digital formats
          Edit and save digital elements
          Respect copyrights

39 Tables, Graphs, and Infographics

          Use tables to present statistical data
          Use line graphs to display changes or trends
          Use bar and column graphs to plot relationships within sets of data
          Use pie charts to display proportions
          Explore the possibilities of infographics

40 Designing Print and Online Documents

          Understand the power of images
          VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Insert an Image into a Word Document 
          Keep page designs simple and uncluttered
          Keep the design logical and consistent
          Keep the design balanced
          Use templates sensibly
          Coordinate your colors
          Use headings if needed
          Choose appropriate fonts

 

Part 7: Academic Research and Sources
41 Beginning Research

          Know your assignment
          Come up with a plan
          Find a manageable topic
          Ask for help
          Distinguish between primary and secondary sources
          Record every source you examine
          Prepare a topic proposal

42 Consulting Experts

          Talk with your instructor
          Take your ideas to the writing center
          Find local experts
          Check with librarians
          Chat with peers

43 Finding Print and Online Sources

          Search libraries strategically
          Explore library reference tools
          Use professional databases
          Explore the Internet

44 Evaluating Sources

          Preview source materials for their key features and strategies
          Check who published or produced the source
          Check who wrote the work
          Consider the audience for a source
          Establish how current a source is
          Check the source’s documentation
          Avoid the echo chamber and fake news

45 Doing Field Research

          Interview people with unique knowledge of your subject
          Make careful research observations
          Learn more about fieldwork

46 Annotating Sources

          Annotate sources to understand them
          Read sources to identify claims
          Read sources to understand assumptions
          Read sources to find evidence
          Record your personal reactions to source material

47 Summarizing Sources

          Prepare a summary for every item you examine
          Use a summary to recap what a writer has said
          Be sure your summary is accurate and complete
          Use a summary to record your take on a source
          Use summaries to prepare an annotated bibliography

48 Paraphrasing Sources

          Identify the major claims and the structure of the source
          Track the source faithfully
          Record key pieces of evidence
          Be certain your notes are entirely in your own words
          Avoid misleading or inaccurate paraphrasing
          Use your paraphrases to synthesize works

49 Incorporating Sources into Your Work

          Cue the reader in some way whenever you introduce borrowed materials
          Select and appropriate “verb of attribution” to frame borrowed material
          Use ellipsis marks [ . . . ] to shorten a lengthy quotation
          Use brackets [ ] to insert explanatory material into a quotation
          Use ellipsis marks, brackets, and other devices to make quoted material fit the grammar of your sentences
          Use [sic] to signal an obvious error in quoted material

50 Documenting Sources

          Understand the point of documentation
          Understand what you accomplish through documentation

 

Part 8: Handbook
51 MLA Documentation and Format

          Document sources according to convention
          MLA in-text citation
          MLA works cited entries

                   VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Cite from a Book (MLA)
                   VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Cite from a Magazine (MLA)
                   VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Cite from a Website (MLA)
                   VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Cite from a Database (MLA)

          Format an MLA paper correctly
          Sample MLA paper

52 APA Documentation and Format

          Document sources according to convention
          APA in-text citation
          APA reference entries

                   VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Cite from a Website (APA)
                   VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Cite from a Database (APA)

          Format an APA paper correctly
          Sample APA pages

53 Grammar                                  

          Verb Tense and Voice
          Subject/Verb Agreement
          Irregular Verbs
          Pronoun/Antecedent Agreement
          Pronoun Reference
          Pronoun Case

54 Mechanics

          Capitalization
          Apostrophes
          Commas
          End punctuation
          Semicolons and colons
          Hyphens, Dashes, Ellipses, Parenthesis, and Brackets
          Quotation Marks and Quotations
          Italics and Boldface

55 Sentence Issues

          Comma Splices and Run-Ons
          Sentence Fragments
          Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
          Maintaining Parallelism

56 Troublesome Pairs

Index