How to Write Anything

New selections are indicated with an asterisk (*).

 

Part 1: Concepts of College Writing
1 Academic Goals and Expectations

          Know that writing is more than avoiding grammar errors 
          Don’t make writing harder than it is 
          Take advantage of your instructor’s office hour
          Use the writing center 
          Think of writing as a process
          Think of yourself as a writer
          VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Use the Writing Center

2 Defining Genres and Purposes 

          Appreciate what genres are 
          Understand why writers rely on genres 
          Using genres to meet assignments 
          Understand subgenres 
          Genres and subgenres in How to Write Anything 

3 Imagining Audiences 

          Consider what your audiences expect 
          Consider who else your readers might be 
          Make adjustments for your readers 
          Define who your readers should be 

4 Understanding Style and Design 

          Appreciate the choices you have 
          Strive for clarity in academic writing 
          Use language that respects audiences 
          Appreciate that design is part of style

 

Part 2: Key Academic Genres
5 Narratives

          Defining the genre 

                    Make a point — usually 
                    Tell a story 
                    Offer details 
                    Focus on people 
                    LITERACY NARRATIVE: Laura Grisham, Literacy Narrative 

          Claiming a topic 

                    Brainstorm 
                    Choose a manageable subject 
                    Choose a consequential subject 
                    Choose a puzzling subject 

          Imagining your audience 

                    Gathering materials 
                    Talk to the people involved 
                    Trust your experiences 
                    Consult personal documents 

          Organizing ideas 

                    Consider a conventional structure 
                    Build toward a climax 
                    Give your readers directions 
                    Use headings and transitions 

          Choosing a style and design 

                    Don’t hesitate to use first person 
                    Use figures of speech, such as similes, metaphors, and analogies, to make memorable comparisons 
                    In choosing verbs, favor active rather than passive voice 
                    Keep the language simple 

          Examining models 

                    ARGUMENTATIVE NARRATIVE: Leah Vann, Bald Is NOT Beautiful 
                    PERSONAL STATEMENT: Michael Villaverde, Application Essay for Academic Service Partnership Foundation Internship 
                    Assignments

6 Reports

          Defining the genre

                    Present information 
                    Find reliable sources 
                    Aim for objectivity
                    Present information clearly        
                    FEATURE STORY: Cat Vasko, Grocery Store Economics: Why Are Rotisserie Chickens So Cheap? 

          Claiming a topic 

                    Answer questions 
                    Review what is already known about a subject 
                    Report new knowledge 

          Imagining your audience 

                    Suppose you are the expert 
                    Suppose you are the novice 
                    Suppose you are the peer 

          Gathering materials 

                    Base reports on the best available sources 
                    Base reports on diverse sources 
                    Fact-check your report 

          Organizing ideas 

                    Organize by date, time, or sequence 
                    Organize by magnitude or order of importance 
                    Organize by division 
                    Organize by classification 
                    Organize by position, location, or space 
                    Organize by definition 
                    Organize by comparison/contrast 
                    Organize by thesis statement 

          Choosing style and design 

                    Present the facts cleanly 
                    Keep out of it 
                    Avoid connotative language 
                    Pay attention to elements of design 

          Examining models 

                    ACADEMIC RESEARCH REPORT: Susan Wilcox, Marathons for Women 
                    *INFOGRAPHIC: Australian Academy of Science, Noise Pollution and Animals
                    Assignments

7 Explanations

          Defining the genre 

                    Don’t jump to conclusions 
                    Appreciate your limits 
                    Offer sufficient evidence for claims
                    *CAUSAL ANALYSIS: Kendall Powell, What Electronic Games Can Teach Us

          Claiming a topic 

                    Look again at a subject you know well 
                    Look for an issue new to you 
                    Examine a local issue 
                    Choose a challenging subject 
                    Tackle an issue that seems settled 

          Imagining your audience 

                    Create an audience 
                    Write to an existing audience 

          Gathering materials 

                    Understand necessary causes 
                    Understand sufficient causes
                    Understand precipitating causes
                    Understand proximate causes
                    Understand remote causes
                    Understand reciprocal causes

          Organizing ideas 

                    Explain why something happened 
                    Explain the consequences of a phenomenon
                    Suggest an alternative explanation 
                    Explain a chain of causes

          Choosing style and design

                    Consider a middle style 
                    Use appropriate supporting media 

          Examining models 

                    RESEARCH STUDY: Alysha Behn, Where Have All the Women Gone? 
                    *FLOW DIAGRAM: U.S. Department of Transportation, Connected Vehicles
                    Assignments

8 Arguments    

          Defining the genre 

                    Offer levelheaded and disputable claims 
                    Offer good reasons to support a claim 
                    Understand opposing claims and points of view 
                    Frame arguments powerfully—and not in words only 
                    *ARGUMENT TO ADVANCE A THESIS: Seth Templeton, An Open Letter to a Protester from a Baltimore County Police Officer

          Claiming a topic 

                    State a preliminary claim, if only for yourself 
                    Qualify your claim to make it reasonable 
                    Examine your core assumptions 

          Imagining your audience 

                    Consider and control your ethos 
                    Consider self-imposed limits 
                    Consider the worlds of your readers 

          Gathering materials 

                    List your reasons 
                    Assemble your hard evidence 
                    Cull the best quotations 
                    Find counterarguments 
                    Consider emotional appeals 

          Organizing ideas 

                    Make a point or build toward one 
                    Spell out what’s at stake 
                    Address counterpoints when necessary, not in a separate section 
                    Save your best arguments for the end 

          Choosing style and design 

                    Invite readers with a strong opening 
                    Write vibrant sentences 
                    Ask rhetorical questions 
                    Use images and design to make a point 

          Examining a model 

                    REFUTATION ARGUMENT: Ryan Young, Self-Driving Cars: A Reality Check 
                    Assignments

9 Evaluations

          Defining the genre 

                    Explain your mission 
                    Establish and defend criteria 
                    Offer convincing evidence 
                    Offer worthwhile advice 
                    CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Megan McArdle, Serena Williams Is Not the Best Tennis Player 

          Claiming a topic 

                    Evaluate a subject you know well 
                    Evaluate a subject you need to investigate 
                    Evaluate a subject you’d like to know more about 
                    Evaluate a subject that’s been on your mind 

          Imagining your audience 

                    Write for experts 
                    Write for a general audience 
                    Write for novices 

          Gathering materials 

                    Decide on your criteria 
                    Look for hard criteria 
                    Argue for criteria that can’t be measured 
                    Stand by your values 
                    Gather your evidence 

          Organizing ideas 

                    Choose a simple structure when your criteria and categories are predictable 
                    Choose a focal point 
                    Compare and contrast 

          Choosing a style and design 

                    Use a high or formal style 
                    Use a middle style 
                    Use a low style 
                    Present evaluations visually 

          Examining models 

                    *MOVIE REVIEW: Roger Ebert, Review of  Do The Right Thing 
                    SOCIAL SATIRE/VISUAL ARGUMENT: Andy Singer, Intravenous Smartphones 
                    Assignments

10 Proposals

          Defining the genre 

                    Define a problem 
                    Make specific recommendations 
                    Target the proposal 
                    Consider plausible alternatives 
                    Make realistic recommendations
                    TRIAL BALLOON: Glenn Harlan Reynolds, To Reduce Inequality, Abolish Ivy League 

          Claiming a topic 

                    Look for a genuine issue 
                    Look for a challenging problem 
                    Look for a soluble problem 
                    Look for a local issue 

          Understanding your audience 

                    Appeal to people who can make a difference 
                    Rally people who represent public opinion 

          Gathering materials 

                    Define the problem 
                    Examine prior solutions 
                    Outline a proposal 
                    Defend the proposal 
                    Figure out how to implement the proposal 

          Organizing ideas 
          Choosing style and design 

                    Use a formal style 
                    Use a middle style, when appropriate 
                    Pay attention to elements of design 

          Examining models 

                    MANIFESTO: Ellen Airhart, Join the Revolution: Eat More Bugs 
                    VISUAL PROPOSAL: Jen Sorensen, Pod People 
                    Assignments

11 Literary Analyses

          Defining the genre 

                    Begin with a close reading 
                    Make a claim or an observation 
                    Use texts for evidence 
                    Present literature in context 
                    Draw on previous research 
                    CULTURAL REFLECTION: Dana Gioia, Why Literature Matters: Good Books Help Make a Civil Society 

          Claiming a topic 

                    Choose a text, genre, or literary/cultural perspective you connect with 
                    Choose a topic you want to learn more about 
                    Choose a text or topic you don’t understand 

          Imagining your audience 

                    Clearly identify the author and works you are analyzing 
                    Define key terms 
                    Don’t aim to please professional critics 

          Gathering materials 

                    Examine the “text” closely 
                    Focus on the text itself 
                    Focus on meanings, themes, and interpretations 
                    Focus on authorship and history 
                    Focus on genre 
                    Focus on influences 
                    Focus on social connections 
                    Find good sources 

          Organizing ideas 

                    Imagine a structure 
                    Work on your opening 

          Choosing style and design 

                    Use a formal style for most assignments 
                    Use a middle style for informal or literacy narratives 
                    Follow the conventions of academic literary analysis 
                    Cite plays correctly                                                                 
                    Explore alternative media 

          Examining a model 

                    CLOSE READING: Kanaka Sathasivan, Insanity: Two Women 
                    ARTS/CULTURE ANALYSIS: Soup Martinez, Review of Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Salinger 
                    Assignments

12 Rhetorical Analyses

          Defining the genre 

                    Take words and images seriously 
                    Spend time with texts 
                    Pay attention to audiences 
                    Mine texts and rhetorical occasions for evidence
                    *RHETORICAL ANALYSIS: Danielle Kurtzleben, When Republicans Attack “Cancel Culture,” What Does It Mean?

          Claiming a topic 

                    Make a difference 
                    Choose a text you can work with 
                    Choose a text you can learn more about 
                    Choose a text with handles 
                    Choose a text you know how to analyze 

          Imagining your audience 
          Gathering materials 

                    Consider the ethos of the author 
                    Consider how a writer plays to emotions 
                    Consider how well reasoned a text is 

          Organizing ideas 
          Choosing style and design 

                    Consider a high style 
                    Consider a middle style 
                    Make the text accessible to readers 

          Examining models 

                    *DISCOURSE/CRITICAL ANALYSIS: Bari Weiss, Resignation Letter 
                    ANALYSIS OF AN ARGUMENT: Matthew James Nance, A Mockery of Justice 
                    Assignments

 

Part 3: Special College and Workplace Genres
13 Essay Examinations  

          Understanding essay exams  

                    Anticipate the types of questions to be asked 
                    Read exam questions carefully 
                    Sketch out a plan for your essay(s) 
                    Organize your answers strategically 
                    Offer strong evidence for your claims 
                    Come to a conclusion                
                    Keep the tone serious 
                    Keep your eye on the clock 

          Getting the details right    

                    Use topic sentences and transitions     
                    Do a quick check of grammar, mechanics, and spelling 
                    Write legibly or print 

          Examining a model 

                    ESSAY EXAMINATION: Wade Lamb, Essay for Classical Modern Rhetoric  

14 Annotated Bibliographies  

          Understanding bibliographies  

                    Begin with an accurate record of research materials 
                    Record every detail you will need to create an accurate citation 
                    Use annotations to assess the significance or quality of the work 
                    Use annotations to explain the role a work plays in your research 
                    Follow a single documentation style 
                    Record the information on your sources accurately 
                    Keep summaries and assessments brief 
                    Follow the directions carefully 

          Examining a model 

                    ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY: Annotated Bibliography from a Topic Proposal (Excerpt)  

15 Syntheses 

          Understanding synthesis papers  

                    Pay close attention to the actual assignment 
                    Identify reputable sources on your subject 
                    Summarize and paraphrase the works you have identified  
                    Look for connections between your sources  
                    Provide a context for your topic  
                    Tell a story  
                    Acknowledge disagreements and rebuttals  
                    Cite materials that both support and challenge your own thesis  
                    Pay attention to language 
                    Be sure to document your sources 

          Examining a model 

                    SYNTHESIS PAPER: Lauren Chiu, Time to Adapt?  

16 Oral Presentations 

          Understanding oral reports  

                    Choose your subject well 
                    Know your stuff  
                    Highlight arresting details  
                    Organize your presentation
                    Keep your audience on track  
                    Stay connected to your listeners  
                    Use your voice and body  
                    Adapt your material to the time available  
                    Practice your talk  
                    Prep for the occasion  

          Getting the details right 

                    Be certain you need presentation software  
                    Use slides to introduce points, not cover them 
                    Use a simple and consistent design 
                    Consider alternatives to slide-based presentations 
                    Learn the rhetoric of poster sessions 

          Examining a model

                    ORAL PRESENTATION: PowerPoint Presentation on Giving an Oral Report  

17 Résumés 

          Understanding résumés  

                    Gather the necessary information 
                    Decide on appropriate categories  
                    Arrange the information within categories strategically  
                    Design pages that are easy to read  

          Getting the details right 

                    Proofread every line in the résumé several times  
                    Don’t leave unexplained gaps in your education or work career 
                    Be consistent and efficient 
                    Protect your personal data 
                    Look for help 

          Examining a model 

                    RÉSUMÉ: Taylor Rowane  

18 Emails and Business Letters 

          Understanding email  

                    Assess the situation 
                    Explain your purpose clearly and logically  
                    Tell readers what you want or expect from them  
                    Write for intended audiences  
                    Write for unintended audiences too 
                    Keep messages brief 
                    Distribute your messages sensibly 

          Getting the details right: email 

                    Use informative subject lines  
                    Arrange your text sensibly  
                    Include an appropriate signature 
                    Use standard grammar 
                    Check the recipient list before you hit send 
                    Don’t be a pain 

          Getting the details right: conventional business letters 

                    Use consistent margins and spacing for print documents  
                    Finesse the greeting  
                    Distribute paper copies of a letter, if necessary  
                    Photocopy any paper letter as a record  
                    Don’t forget any promised enclosures 
                    Fold a paper business letter correctly and send it in a suitable  

          Examining models                                                 

                    EMAIL: Typical e-mail query  
                    COVER LETTER: Typical cover letter  

19 Writing Portfolios 

          Understanding writing portfolios  

                    Take charge of the portfolio assignment 
                    Appreciate the audiences for a portfolio  
                    Present authentic materials  
                    Take reflections seriously  

          Getting the details right  

                    Polish your portfolio  
                    Understand the portfolio activities  
                    Give honest feedback to classmates 

          Examining a model 

                    WRITING PORTFOLIO: Desiree Lopez, Midterm Reflection on an Internship Course

 

Part 4: A Writer’s Routines
20 Smart Reading  

          Recall the basics 
          Read to deepen what you already know 
          Read above your level of knowledge 
          Read what makes you uncomfortable 
          Read against the grain 
          Read slowly 
          Annotate what you read 

21 Critical Thinking

          Think in terms of claims and reasons 
          Think in terms of premises and assumptions 
          Think in terms of evidence 
          Anticipate objections
          Avoid logical fallacies 

22 Claiming Topics

          Follow routines that support invention 
          Browse course materials 
          Search online 
          Build from lists 
          Map your ideas 
          Try freewriting 
          Use memory prompts 
          VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Browse for Ideas

23 Gathering Materials

          Gather information from reputable and appropriate sources 
          Use the research tools your school provides 
          Look for diverse sources representing a respected range of opinion
          Pay attention to dates
          Use an adequate number of sources 
          Be sure to collect and document your sources systematically

24 Shaping a Thesis

          Compose a complete sentence 
          Make a significant claim or assertion 
          Write a declarative sentence, not a question 
          Expect your thesis to mature 
          Introduce a thesis early in a project 
          Or state a thesis late in a project 
          Write a thesis to fit your audience and purpose 

25 Developing Ideas

          Use description to set a scene 
          Use division to divide a subject 
          Use classification to sort objects or ideas by consistent principles 
          Use definition to clarify meaning 
          Use comparison and contrast to show similarity and difference 

26 Organizing Ideas

          Examine model documents 
          Sketch out a plan or sequence 
          Try reverse outlining 
          Provide cues or signals for readers 
          Deliver on your commitments 
          Appreciate the value in varying structure

27 Outlining

          Begin with a scratch outline 
          Look for relationships 
          Subordinate ideas                                                    
          Prepare a complete outline if required 

28 Revising, Editing, and Proofreading

          Revise to see the big picture 
          Edit to make the paper flow 
          Proofread to get the details right 
          VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Revise Your Work 

29 Peer Reviewing

          Peer edit the same way you revise your own work 
          Be specific in identifying problems or opportunities 
          Offer suggestions for improvement 
          Praise what is genuinely good in the paper 
          Use proofreading symbols 
          Keep comments tactful and confidential 
          VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Insert a Comment in a Word Document 

30 Overcoming Writer’s Block

          Break the project into parts 
          Set manageable goals 
          Create a calendar 
          Limit distractions 
          Do the parts you like first 
          Write a zero draft 
          Reward yourself 

 

Part 5: Style 
31 Levels of Style 

          Use high style for formal, scientific, and scholarly writing 
          Use middle style for personal, argumentative, and some academic writing 
          Use a low style for personal, informal, and even playful writing 

32 Clear and Vigorous Writing

          Build sentences around specific and tangible subjects and objects 
          Look for opportunities to use specific nouns and noun phrases rather than general ones 
          Avoid sprawling phrases 
          Avoid sentences with long windups 
          Favor simple, active verbs                                       
          Avoid strings of prepositional phrases 
          Don’t repeat key words close together 
          Avoid doublings 
          Turn clauses into more direct modifiers 
          Cut introductory expressions such as it is and there is/are when you can 
          Vary your sentence lengths and structures 
          Read aloud what you have written 
          Cut a first draft by 25 percent—or more 

33 Inclusive Writing

          Avoid expressions that stereotype genders or sexual orientation 
          Avoid expressions that stereotype races, ethnic groups, or religious groups 
          Handle pronouns appropriately 
          Treat all people with respect 
          Avoid sensational language 

34 Purposeful Paragraphs

          Make sure paragraphs lead somewhere 
          Develop ideas adequately 
          Organize paragraphs logically 
          Use paragraphs to manage transitions 
          Design paragraphs for readability 

35 Strategic Transitions

          Use appropriate transitional words and phrases 
          Use the right word or phrase to show time or sequence 
          Use sentence structure to connect ideas 
          Pay attention to nouns and pronouns 
          Use synonyms 
          Use physical devices for transitions 
          Read a draft aloud to locate weak transitions 

36 Memorable Openings and Closings

          Shape an introduction 
          Draw a conclusion 

37 Informative Titles

          Use titles to focus documents 
          Create searchable titles 
          Avoid whimsical or suggestive titles 
          Capitalize and punctuate titles carefully 

 

Part 6: Design and Digital Media
38 Understanding Digital Media

          Choose a media format based on what you hope to accomplish 
          Use social networks and blogs to create communities 
          Create websites to share information 
          Use wikis to collaborate with others 
          Make videos and podcasts to share information 
          Use maps to position ideas 
          Use appropriate digital formats 
          Edit and save digital elements 
          Respect copyrights 

39 Tables, Graphs, and Infographics

          Use tables to present statistical data 
          Use line graphs to display changes or trends 
          Use bar and column graphs to plot relationships within sets of data 
          Use pie charts to display proportions 
          Explore the possibilities of infographics 

40 Designing Print and Online Documents  

          Understand the power of images 
          VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Insert an Image into a Word Document 
          Keep page designs simple and uncluttered 
          Keep the design logical and consistent 
          Keep the design balanced 
          Use templates sensibly 
          Coordinate your colors 
          Use headings if needed 
          Choose appropriate fonts 

 

Part 7: Academic Research and Sources
41 Beginning Research  

          Know your assignment 
          Come up with a plan 
          Find a manageable topic 
          Ask for help 
          Distinguish between primary and secondary sources 
          Record every source you examine 
          Prepare a topic proposal 

42 Consulting Experts 

          Talk with your instructor 
          Take your ideas to the writing center 
          Find local experts 
          Check with librarians 
          Chat with peers 

43 Finding Print and Online Sources 

          Search libraries strategically 
          Explore library reference tools 
          Use professional databases 
          Explore the Internet 

44 Evaluating Sources 

          Preview source materials for their key features and strategies 
          Check who published or produced the source 
          Check who wrote the work 
          Consider the audience for a source 
          Establish how current a source is 
          Check the source’s documentation 
          Avoid the echo chamber and fake news 

45 Doing Field Research 

          Interview people with unique knowledge of your subject 
          Make careful research observations 
          Learn more about fieldwork 

46 Annotating Sources 

          Annotate sources to understand them 
          Read sources to identify claims 
          Read sources to understand assumptions 
          Read sources to find evidence 
          Record your personal reactions to source material

47 Summarizing Sources 

          Prepare a summary for every item you examine 
          Use a summary to recap what a writer has said 
          Be sure your summary is accurate and complete 
          Use a summary to record your take on a source 
          Use summaries to prepare an annotated bibliography 

48 Paraphrasing Sources 

          Identify the major claims and the structure of the source 
          Track the source faithfully 
          Record key pieces of evidence 
          Be certain your notes are entirely in your own words 
          Avoid misleading or inaccurate paraphrasing 
          Use your paraphrases to synthesize works 

49 Incorporating Sources into Your Work 

          Cue the reader in some way whenever you introduce borrowed materials 
          Select and appropriate “verb of attribution” to frame borrowed material 
          Use ellipsis marks [ . . . ] to shorten a lengthy quotation 
          Use brackets [ ] to insert explanatory material into a quotation 
          Use ellipsis marks, brackets, and other devices to make quoted material fit the grammar of your sentences  
          Use [sic] to signal an obvious error in quoted material 

50 Documenting Sources 

          Understand the point of documentation 
          Understand what you accomplish through documentation 

 

Part 8: Handbook
51 MLA Documentation and Format

          Document sources according to convention 
          MLA in-text citation 
          MLA works cited entries 

                   VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Cite from a Book (MLA)  
                   VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Cite from a Magazine (MLA)  
                   VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Cite from a Website (MLA) 
                   VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Cite from a Database (MLA)  

          Format an MLA paper correctly 
          Sample MLA paper 

52 APA Documentation and Format

          Document sources according to convention 
          APA in-text citation 
          APA reference entries 

                   VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Cite from a Website (APA) 
                   VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Cite from a Database (APA) 

          Format an APA paper correctly 
          Sample APA pages 

53 Grammar                                  

          Verb Tense and Voice 
          Subject/Verb Agreement 
          Irregular Verbs 
          Pronoun/Antecedent Agreement 
          Pronoun Reference 
          Pronoun Case 

54 Mechanics

          Capitalization 
          Apostrophes 
          Commas 
          End punctuation 
          Semicolons and colons 
          Hyphens, Dashes, Ellipses, Parenthesis, and Brackets 
          Quotation Marks and Quotations 
          Italics and Boldface 

55 Sentence Issues

          Comma Splices and Run-Ons 
          Sentence Fragments 
          Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers 
          Maintaining Parallelism 

56 Troublesome Pairs

Index