First Peoples

Preface
Maps Tables, and Charts
Introduction: American Indians in American History
Perspectives on the Past 
America’s Master Narrative 
Indian History: A Shared Past 
Working with Sources  
A Note on Name Usage and Geographic Focus 
References
 
Chapter 1: American History before Columbus
Determining What Came Before 
Precontact Population 
Creation Stories and Migration Theories 
Debates over Native Origins 
Glimpses of Precontact Societies 
West Coast Affluence 
Columbia Plateau Fishers 
Great Basin Foragers 
First Buffalo Hunters of the Plains 
First Farmers of the Southwest 
Farmers and Mound Builders of the Eastern Woodlands  
Emerging Tribes and Confederacies 
Seaborne Strangers 
Conclusion 
Chapter Review 
DOCUMENTS
A Navajo Emergence Story and an Iroquois Creation Story 
Hastin Tlo’tsi hee, The Beginning 
John Norton, Iroquois Creation Story (c. 1816) 
PICTURE ESSAY: Early American Cities, Settlements, and Centers 
The Ruins of Pueblo Bonito
Cliff Palace at Mesa Verde
Cahokia Mounds, c. a.d. 1150–1200
John White, Indian Village of Secoton (1585)
Iroquois Longhouse
References 
Suggested Readings 

Chapter 2 : The Invasions of America: Encounters, Epidemics, and Exchanges, 1492–1700s
First Contacts and Mutual Appraisals 
Native America through the European Lens 
Enduring Images 
Columbian Exchanges 
Changing New World Landscapes 
Biological Catastrophes 
Indians Confront the Spanish 
A Mission for Gold and God 
Conquest of the Aztecs 
Searching for Other Empires 
North American Attempts to Colonize and Christianize 
The Pueblo War of Independence 
Indians Confront the French 
Commerce and Conflict 
Pelts and Priests 
Indians Confront the English 
Securing a Beachhead in Virginia  
Making a New England 
Economic and Cultural Exchanges 
Indians in Colonial Societies 
Colonists in Indian Societies 
Fur Trades and Slave Trades 
The Impact of the Fur Trade 
The Cost of the Fur Trade 
Indian Slavery 
Conclusion 
Chapter Review 
DOCUMENTS
Cooperation, Contagion, and Conflict 
William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation (1590–1657) 
A Jesuit Assesses the Hurons and a Mi’kmaq Assesses the French 
Jean de Brébeuf, The Mission to the Hurons (1635–37) 
Chrestien LeClerq, A Mi’kmaq Questions French “Civilization” (1677)
PICTURE ESSAY: Images of  Spanish Invasion
Theodore de Bry, Engraving depicting Christopher Columbus landing on Hispaniola (1592) 
A Tlaxcalan Depiction of Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán’s Conquest of Northwestern Mexico, c. 1530
William Powell, The Discovery of the Mississippi by De Soto in 1541 (1853)
Spaniards on Horseback 
Johnathan Warm Day, The Last Supper
References 
Suggested Readings 

Chapter 3 : War and Diplomacy in Colonial America, 1675–1763
A New World of Warfare and Words 
Two Indian Wars of Independence 
King Philip’s War 
The Pueblo War of Independence 
The Languages and Lessons of Indian Diplomacy 
Attempts at Diplomatic Balance 
Wars for America 
A World Transformed by War 
The French and English War 
Division within Tribal Communities 
Captives Taken, Captives Returned 
Responses to Change in the West: Indian Power on the Plains 
Horses Transform the Plains 
Jostling for Position on the Plains  
At the Confluence of Guns and Horses 
War and Diplomacy on the Southern Plains 
Conclusion 
Chapter review 
DOCUMENTS
Indian Reasons for Going to War
John Easton, Metacomet Explains the Causes of “King Philip’s War,” from A Relacion of the Indyan Warre (1675)
Declaration of the Indian Juan (1681) 
An English Treaty and a Penobscot Response 
Treaty between the Abenaki Indians and the English at Casco Bay (1727)
Loron Sauguaarum, An Account of Negotiations Leading to the Casco Bay Treaty (1727)
Imperial Conflict and the Senecas 
Tanaghrisson, Speech Defying the French  
Mary Jemison (Dickewamis), A Narrative of Her Life (1824) 
PICTURE ESSAY: Indian Diplomats in Eighteenth-Century London 
John Verelst, Tac Yec Neen Ho Gar Ton (Hendrick, “Emperor of the Six Nations”) (1701)
Isaac Basire, Seven Cherokees (1730)
William Verelst, Creek Delegation Meets the Trustees of Georgia (1734) Francis Parsons, Cunne Shote (1762)
Jonathan Spilsbury, after Mason Chamberlain, The Reverend Mr. Samson Occom (1768)
References 
Suggested Readings 

Chapter 4 : Revolutions East and West, 1763–1800  
Worlds Turned Upside Down 
Pontiac’s War: Indians Confront a New Empire 
Attempting to Draw a Line 
Indians and the American Revolution 
Indian Loyalties Divided 
Treaties of Peace and Conquest 
Indians Confront an Expanding Nation 
The United States Develops an Indian — and a Land — Policy 
Indians Build a United Defense 
Upheavals in the West 
Emerging and Colliding Powers on the Plains 
California Missions 
The Pacific Northwest Pelt Rush 
Smallpox Used Them Up 
Conclusion 
Chapter Review 
DOCUMENTS
The Revolution Divides the Iroquois and the Cherokees 
An Oneida Declaration of Neutrality (1775) 
Henry Stuart, Report from Cherokee Country (1776) 
An Indian Solution to the Conflict over Indian Lands 
Western Indians, Message to the Commissioners of the United States (1793)
Smallpox Strikes the Blackfeet 
Saukamappee, Death Came Over us All 
PICTURE ESSAY: Northwest Coast Indians on the Brink: The Drawings of John Webber 
John Webber, A View in Ship Cove, Nootka Sound (1778)
John Webber, Interior of Habitation at Nootka Sound (1778)
John Webber, A Woman of Nootka Sound (1778)
John Webber, A Man of Nootka Sound (1778)
John Webber, A Woman of Prince William’s Island (1778)
John Webber, A Man of Oonalashka (1778)
References 
Suggested Readings 

Chapter 5: American Indians and the New Nation, 1800–1840
Accommodating and Resisting Change 
Adapting to New Ways 
The Last Phases of United Indian Resistance 
Lewis and Clark in Indian Country 
Encounters on the Missouri 
Over the Mountains and Back 
Indian Removals 
Roots of the Removal Policy 
The Cherokee Resistance 
Implementing Removal in the South 
Removal in the North 
Surviving behind the Frontier: Race, Class, and History in Nineteenth-Century New England
Conclusion 
Chapter Review 
DOCUMENTS
The Vision of Techumseh 
Tecumseh, Speech to the Osages (c.1881) 
A Double Homicide at Two Medicine
Meriwether Lewis, An Account of His Fight with the Blackfeet (1806) 
Cherokee Women Oppose Removal 
Cherokee Women, Petition (May 2, 1817) 
Cherokee Women, Petition (June 30, 1818) 
Foundations of Federal Indian Law and a Native Response
John Marshall, Cherokee Nation v. State of Georgia (1831) and Worcester v. Georgia (1832)
John Ross, Reactions to Worcester v. Georgia: Letter to Richard Taylor, John Baldridge, Sleeping Rabbit, Sicketowee, and Wahachee (April 28, 1832) 
PICTURE ESSAY: Indian Life on the Upper Missouri: A Catlin/Bodmer Portfolio 
Karl Bodmer, The Interior of the Hut of a Mandan Chief
Diagram of the Interior of an Earth Lodge
George Catlin, Mint, a Pretty Girl
Karl Bodmer, Pehriska-Ruhpa, Moennitarri Warrior, in the Costume of the Dog Dance
George Catlin, Pigeon’s Egg Head (The Light) Going to and Returning from Washington
References 
Suggested Readings 

Chapter 6: Defending the West, 1840–1890
Invaders from the East: Incursions before the American Civil War 
The Ravages of Disease 
Ethnic Cleansing in Texas, c. 1836–48 
American Empire Reaches the Pacific Northwest, 1846–56 
Genocide and Exploitation in California 
Opening Clashes on the Plains, 1851–56 
Wars and Treaties, 1861–74  
Indian Experiences during the American Civil War 
Final Treaties and Ongoing Conflicts, 1866–74 
Land Seizure and Removal to Reservations 
Battles for Sacred Lands and Homelands, 1875–78 
The End of Apache Resistance 
Different Strategies for Survival 
Indian Scouts and Allies 
Return of the Prophets 
Conclusion 
Chapter Review
DOCUMENTS
Sixty Years of Kiowa History 
The Dohasan Calendar (1832–92) 
The Sioux, the Treaty of Fort Laramie, and the Black Hills
Treaty with the Sioux — Brulé, Oglala, Miniconjou, Yanktonai, Hunkpapa, Blackfeet, Cuthead, Two Kettle, Sans Arcs, and Santee — and Arapaho (1868)
Chief Joseph’s Plea for Freedom 
Chief Joseph, An Indian’s View of Indian Affairs (1879) 
PICTURE ESSAY: The Battle of the Little Bighorn in Myth and History 
William Cary, The Death Struggle of General Custer (1876)
Custer’s Last Stand (1904)
Little Big Man (1970) 
Lakotas Fighting Custer’s Command
Indian Memorial at Little Bighorn
References 
Suggested Readings 

Chapter 7: “Kill the Indian and Save the Man,” 1870s–1920s
Americanizing the American Indian 
Policies of Detribalization  
Resistance Takes New Forms 
The Dawes Allotment Act (1887) 
Indian Territory Becomes Oklahoma 
The Educational Assault on Indian Children 
Removing Children from the Tribe 
Life in the Schools
Surviving the Schools, Using the Education 
The Two Worlds of Ohiyesa and Charles Eastman 
Native Americans Enter the Twentieth Century 
“I Still Live”: Indians in American Society 
Cultural Expression and the American Way 
A New Generation of Leaders 
Soldiers and Citizens 
Indian Affairs in the 1920s 
Conclusion 
Chapter Review 
DOCUMENTS
An American Reformer Views “the Indian Problem” and an Indian Reformer Views the Indian Bureau 
Merrill E. Gates, From the Seventeenth Annual Report of the Board of Indian Commissioners (1885)
Carlos Montezuma, What Indians Must Do (1914) 
Two Sioux School Experiences 
Luther Standing Bear, What a School Could Have Been Established (1933)
Zitkala-Ša, The Melancholy of Those Black Days (1921)  
PICTURE ESSAY: The Fort Marion Artists 
Howling Wolf, Cheyenne Warrior Striking an Enemy
Courtship Scene
Paul Caryl Zotom, On the Parapet of Ft. Marion Next Day after Arrival (c. 1875)
Distribution of Goods
Chief Killer, Education of the Fort Marion Prisoners (1875–78)
Wo-Haw, Self-Portrait (c. 1875)
References 
Suggested Readings 

Chapter 8: From the Great Crash to Wounded Knee, 1929–1974  
A New Era in Indian Affairs? 
John Collier and the Indian New Deal 
The Indian Reorganization Act 
Opposing and Disputing the IRA 
Indians and World War II 
Termination 
The Indian Claims Commission 
Removing the Government’s Trust Responsibilities 
Relocation and Urban Indians 
Drowning Homelands 
A Younger Generation Responds 
Upheaval in America 
The Rise of Indian Militancy 
The American Indian Movement 
Siege at Wounded Knee
Legacies of Wounded Knee 
Conclusion 
Chapter Review 
DOCUMENTS
Two Views of the Indian Reorganization Act
John Collier, An “Indian Renaissance,” from the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs (1935)
D’Arcy McNickle, Four Years of Indian Reorganization
Indians in the Cities 
Ignatia Broker, Brought to a Brotherhood (1983) 
Documents of Indian Militancy 
Clyde Warrior, “We Are Not Free”: From Testimony before the President’s National Advisory Commission on Rural Poverty (1967)
Mary Crow Dog, A Woman’s View from Wounded Knee (1991)
PICTURE ESSAY: Indians and World War II
Banning the Swastika
Iroquois Declare War on the Axis Powers on the Steps of the U.S. Capitol, June 1942
Indian Women in the Marine Corps Reserve
Navajo Code Talkers, December 1943
Flag Raising at Iwo Jima
Quincy Tahoma, First Furlough (1943)
References 
Suggested Readings
 
Chapter 9: Self-Determination and Sovereignty, 1970–2010  
From Paternalism to Partnership 
Protecting Women’s Reproductive Rights 
Regaining Rights: Child Welfare and Religious Freedom 
Taking Back Education 
Indian Education for Indian Students 
Tribal Colleges 
The Struggle for Natural Resources 
Coal, Uranium, Oil, and Gas 
Fighting For and Against Water 
Sovereignty Goes to Court 
Victories for Tribal Rights 
Chipping Away at Tribal Sovereignty 
Economic Success through Sovereignty 
The Rise of Indian Gaming 
A Devil’s Bargain? 
New Eras in Washington? 
Changes at the BIA 
Repatriation and a New Museum 
A New Embassy and a New “White Father” 
Conclusion 
Chapter Review 
DOCUMENTS
The Supreme Court and Tribal Sovereignty: The Oliphant Decision and Its Impact on Indian Country 
Supreme Court of the United States, Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe (1978
Indian Leadership at the End of the Twentieth Century 
Vine Deloria Jr., The Popularity of Being Indian: A New Trend in Contemporary American Society (1984)
Wilma Mankiller, Returning the Balance (1993) 
PICTURE ESSAY: Indian Artists Depict Modern Indian Life 
David P. Bradley, Indian Country Today (1996)
Harry Fonseca, Coyote Woman in the City (1979)
Peter Jones, Sovereign –Indian
Jack Malotte, It’s Hard to Be -Traditional When You’re All Plugged In
Bunky Echo-Hawk, Before Here Was Here
References 
Suggested Readings 

Chapter 10: Nations within a Nation: Indian Country Today  
A Twenty-First-Century Renaissance 
The Census: An Evolving Profile of Indian America 
Who Is an Indian?  
“Recognized” and “Nonrecognized” Tribes 
Old Stereotypes and New Images  
“The White Man’s Indian 
Playing Indian and Fighting Mascots 
Nations within a Nation 
Nations, Not Minorities 
Third Sovereigns, Triple Citizens, and Tribal Justice 
Global Indigenous Nations 
Building Well Nations 
Building Prosperity through Sovereignty  
Confronting Drugs and Alcohol 
Balancing Ways of Healing 
Restoring Safety to Tribal Citizens 
The Welfare of Indian Children 
Revitalizing Nations 
Protecting Culture and Preserving Language 
Educating Citizens 
Homelands, Wastelands, and Pipelines 
Nuclear Waste in Indian Country 
The Earth Hurts 
Global Warming and New Partnerships 
Protesting Pipelines 
Conclusion: History Matters 
Chapter Review 
DOCUMENTS
Protecting Native Women
Deborah Parker, I am a Native Statistic (2012)
Pipelines and Treaty Rights  
United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, Statement on the Dakota Access Pipeline (November 4, 2016) 
Dave Archambault II, Standing Rock Siox Tribe v. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (February 10, 2017) 
U.S.–Indian Relations on a World Stage
International Indian Treaty Council, Declaration of Continuing Independence (June 1974) 
General Assembly of the United Nations, United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (September 13, 2007)
PICTURE ESSAY: Tribal Sovereignty in Action
Pawnee Nation Flag
Tribal Police
Navajo Supreme Court
Tipis on the Mall
Standing with Standing Rock
References 
Suggested Readings 
Index