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Rules for Writers
Tenth Edition©2022 Diana Hacker; Nancy Sommers
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A Process for Writing
1 Exploring, planning, and drafting
a Assess the writing situation.
b Explore your subject.
c Draft and revise a working thesis statement.
d Draft a plan.
e Draft an introduction.
f Draft the body.
g Draft a conclusion.
2 Writing paragraphs
a Focus on a main point.
b Develop the main point.
c Make paragraphs coherent.
d If necessary, adjust paragraph length.
e Choose a suitable strategy for developing paragraphs.
3 Revising, editing, and reflecting
a Use peer review: Give constructive comments.
b Learn from peer review: Revise with comments.
c One student’s peer review process
d Approach global revision in cycles.
e Revise globally by making a reverse outline.
f Revise and edit sentences.
g Proofread and format the final manuscript.
h Sample student revision: Literacy narrative
i Reflect on your writing; prepare a portfolio.
Academic Reading and Writing
4 Reading and writing critically
a Read actively.
b Outline a text to identify main ideas.
c Summarize to deepen your understanding.
d Analyze to demonstrate your critical reading.
e Sample student writing: Analysis of an article
5 Reading and writing about multimodal texts
a Read a multimodal text actively.
b Summarize a multimodal text to deepen your understanding.
c Analyze a multimodal text to demonstrate your critical reading.
d Sample student writing: Analysis of an advertisement
6 Reading arguments
a Read with an open mind and a critical eye.
b Evaluate ethical, logical, and emotional appeals as a reader.
c Evaluate the evidence behind an argument.
d Identify underlying assumptions.
e Evaluate how fairly a writer handles opposing views.
7 Writing arguments
a Identify your purpose and context.
b View your audience as a panel of jurors.
c Build common ground with your audience.
d In your introduction, establish credibility and state your position.
e Back up your thesis with persuasive lines of argument.
f Support your thesis with specific evidence.
g Anticipate objections; counter opposing arguments.
h Sample student writing: Argument
Clarity
8 Prefer active verbs.
a Active versus passive verbs
b Active versus be verbs
c Subject that names the actor
9 Balance parallel ideas.
a Parallel ideas in a series
b Parallel ideas presented as pairs
c Repetition of function words
10 Add needed words.
a In compound structures
b that
c In comparisons
d a, an, and the
11 Untangle mixed constructions.
a Mixed grammar
b Illogical connections
c is when, is where, and reason . . . is because
12 Repair misplaced and dangling modifiers.
a Limiting modifiers
b Misplaced phrases and clauses
c Awkwardly placed modifiers
d Split infinitives
e Dangling modifiers
13 Eliminate distracting shifts.
a Point of view (person, number)
b Verb tense
c Verb mood, voice
d Indirect to direct questions or quotations
14 Emphasize key ideas.
a Coordination and subordination
b Choppy sentences
c Ineffective or excessive coordination
d Ineffective subordination
e Excessive subordination
f Other techniques
15 Provide some variety.
a Sentence openings
b Sentence structures
c Inverted order
16 Tighten wordy sentences.
a Redundancies
b Unnecessary repetition
c Empty or inflated phrases
d Simplifying the structure
e Reducing clauses to phrases, phrases to single words
17 Choose appropriate language.
a Levels of formality
b Jargon
c Euphemisms and “doublespeak”
d Slang
e Sexist and noninclusive language
f Biased language
18 Find the exact words.
a Connotations
b Specific, concrete nouns
c Standard idioms
d Clichés
e Figures of speech
f Glossary of usage
Grammar
19 Repair sentence fragments.
a Subordinate clauses
b Phrases
c Other fragmented word groups
d Acceptable fragments
20 Revise run-on sentences.
a Revision with coordinating conjunction
b Revision with semicolon, colon, or dash
c Revision by separating sentences
d Revision by restructuring
21 Make subjects and verbs agree.
a Standard subject-verb combinations
b Words between subject and verb
c Subjects joined with and
d Subjects joined with or, nor, either . . . or, or neither . . . nor
e Indefinite pronouns
f Collective nouns
g Subject following verb
h Subject, not subject complement
i who, which, and that
j Words with plural form, singular meaning
k Titles of works, company names, words mentioned as words, gerund phrases
22 Make pronouns and antecedents agree.
a Indefinite pronouns, generic nouns
b Collective nouns
c Compound antecedents
23 Make pronoun references clear.
a Ambiguous or remote reference
b Broad reference with this, that, which, and it
c Implied antecedents
d Indefinite use of they, it, and you
e who for persons, which or that for things
24 Distinguish between pronouns such as I and me.
a Subjective case for subjects and subject complements
b Objective case for objects
c Appositives
d Pronoun following than or as
e Subjects and objects of infinitives
f Pronoun modifying a gerund
25 Distinguish between who and whom.
a In subordinate clauses
b In questions
c As subjects or objects of infinitives
26 Choose adjectives and adverbs with care.
a Adjectives to modify nouns
b Adverbs to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs
c good and well, bad and badly
d Comparatives and superlatives
e Double negatives
27 Choose appropriate verb forms, tenses, and moods.
a Irregular verbs
b lie and lay
c -s (or -es) endings
d -ed endings
e Omitted verbs
f Verb tense
g Subjunctive mood
Multilingual Writers and ESL Topics
28 Verbs
a Appropriate form and tense
b Passive voice
c Base form after a modal
d Negative verb forms
e Verbs in conditional sentences
f Verbs followed by gerunds or infinitives
29 Articles (a, an, the)
a Articles and other noun markers
b When to use the
c When to use a or an
d When not to use a or an
e No articles with general nouns
f Articles with proper nouns
30 Sentence structure
a Linking verb between a subject and its complement
b A subject in every sentence
c Repeated nouns or pronouns with the same grammatical function
d Repeated subjects, objects, and adverbs in adjective clauses
e Placement of adverbs
f Present participles and past participles as adjectives
g Order of cumulative adjectives
31 Prepositions and idiomatic expressions
a Prepositions showing time and place
b Noun (including -ing form) after a preposition
c Common adjective + preposition combinations
d Common verb + preposition combinations
32 Paraphrasing sources effectively
a Avoiding synonyms
b Determining a source’s meaning
c Presenting meaning in your own words
Punctuation
33 The comma
a Independent clauses joined with and, but, etc.
b Introductory elements
c Items in a series
d Coordinate adjectives
e Nonrestrictive and restrictive elements
f Transitional expressions and other word groups
g Direct address, yes and no, interrogative tags, interjections
h he said etc.
i Dates, addresses, titles, numbers
34 Unnecessary commas
a Between two words, phrases, or subordinate clauses
b Between a verb and its subject or object
c Before the first or after the last item in a series
d Between cumulative adjectives, an adjective and a noun, or an adverb and an adjective
e Before and after restrictive or parenthetical elements
f Before essential concluding adverbial elements
g After a phrase beginning an inverted sentence
h Other misuses
35 The semicolon
a Between independent clauses not joined with a coordinating conjunction
b Between independent clauses linked with a transitional expression
c In a series containing internal punctuation
d Misuses
36 The colon
a Before a list, an appositive, or a quotation
b Conventional uses
c Misuses
37 The apostrophe
a Possessive nouns
b Possessive indefinite pronouns
c Contractions
d Not for plural numbers, letters, abbreviations, words as words
e Misuses
38 Quotation marks
a Direct quotations
b Quotation within a quotation
c Titles of short works
d Words as words
e With other punctuation marks
f Misuses
39 End punctuation
a The period
b The question mark
c The exclamation point
40 Other punctuation marks
a The dash
b Parentheses
c Brackets
d The ellipsis mark
e The slash
Mechanics
41 Abbreviations
a Titles with proper names
b Familiar abbreviations
c Conventional abbreviations
d Units of measurement
e Latin abbreviations
f Plural of abbreviations
42 Numbers
a Spelling out
b Using numerals
43 Italics
a Titles of works
b Non-English words
c Words as words, letters as letters, numbers as numbers
44 Spelling
a Spelling rules
b Words that sound alike
45 Hyphenation
a Compound words
b Hyphenated adjectives
c Fractions and compound numbers
d With certain prefixes and suffixes
e To avoid ambiguity or to separate awkward double or triple letters
f Word division
46 Capitalization
a Proper vs. common nouns
b Titles with proper names
c Titles and subtitles of works
d First word of a sentence
e First word of a quoted sentence
f First word after a colon
Grammar Basics
47 Parts of speech
a Nouns
b Pronouns
c Verbs
d Adjectives
e Adverbs
f Prepositions
g Conjunctions
h Interjections
48 Sentence patterns
a Subjects
b Verbs, objects, and complements
49 Subordinate word groups
a Prepositional phrases
b Verbal phrases
c Appositive phrases
d Absolute phrases
e Subordinate clauses
50 Sentence types
a Sentence structures
b Sentence purposes
Research
51 Thinking like a researcher; gathering sources
a Manage the project.
b Pose questions worth exploring.
c Map out a search strategy.
d Search efficiently; master a few shortcuts to finding good sources.
e Write a research proposal.
f Conduct field research, if appropriate.
52 Managing information; taking notes responsibly
a Maintain a working bibliography.
b Keep track of source materials.
c As you take notes, avoid unintentional plagiarism.
53 Evaluating sources
a Evaluate the reliability and usefulness of a source.
b Read with an open mind and a critical eye.
c Assess web sources with care.
d Construct an annotated bibliography.
Writing Papers in MLA Style
54 Supporting a thesis
a Form a working thesis statement.
b Organize ideas with an informal plan.
c Consider how sources will contribute to your research paper.
55 Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism
a Understand how the MLA system works.
b Understand what plagiarism is.
c Use quotation marks around borrowed language.
d Put summaries and paraphrases in your own words.
56 Integrating sources
a Summarize and paraphrase effectively.
b Use quotations effectively.
c Use signal phrases to integrate sources.
d Synthesize sources.
57 Documenting sources in MLA style
a MLA in-text citations
b MLA list of works cited
c MLA information notes
58 MLA format; sample research paper
a MLA format
b Sample MLA research paper
Writing Papers in APA Style
59 Supporting a thesis
a Form a working thesis statement.
b Organize ideas with an informal plan.
c Consider how sources will contribute to your research paper.
60 Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism
a Understand how the APA system works.
b Understand what plagiarism is.
c Use quotation marks around borrowed language.
d Put summaries and paraphrases in your own words.
61 Integrating sources
a Summarize and paraphrase effectively.
b Use quotations effectively.
c Use signal phrases to integrate sources.
d Synthesize sources.
62 Documenting sources in APA style
a APA in-text citations
b APA list of references
63 APA format; sample research paper
a APA format
b Sample APA research paper
Appendix
Models of professional writing
Diana Hacker
Diana Hacker personally class-tested her handbooks with nearly four thousand students over thirty-five years at Prince George's Community College in Maryland, where she was a member of the English faculty. Hacker handbooks, built on innovation and on a keen understanding of the challenges facing student writers, are the most widely adopted in America. Hacker handbooks, all published by Bedford/St. Martin's, include A Writer's Reference, Eleventh Edition (2025); A Pocket Style Manual, Tenth Edition (2025); The Bedford Handbook, Twelfth Edition (2023); Rules for Writers, Tenth Edition (2022); and Writer’s Help 2.0, Hacker Version.
Nancy Sommers
Nancy Sommers, who has taught composition and directed composition programs for thirty years, now teaches in Harvard's Graduate School of Education. She led Harvard's Expository Writing Program for twenty years, directing the first-year writing program and establishing Harvard's WAC program. A two-time Braddock Award winner, Sommers is well known for her research and publications on student writing. Her articles “Revision Strategies of Student and Experienced Writers” and “Responding to Student Writing” are two of the most widely read and anthologized articles in the field of composition. Recently she has been exploring different audiences through publishing in popular media. Sommers is the lead author on Hacker handbooks, all published by Bedford/St. Martin’s, and editor of Tiny Teaching Stories on Macmillan Learning's Bits Blog.
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