First Peoples

Preface
Maps, Tables, and Charts
Introduction: American Indians in American History
Perspectives on the Past
America’s Master Narrative
Indian History: A Shared Past
Working with Sources
A Note on Name Usage and Geographic Focus
References   Chapter 1: American History before Columbus
Determining What Came Before
     Precontact Population
     Creation Stories and Migration Theories
     Debates over Native Origins
Glimpses of Precontact Societies
     West Coast Affluence
     Columbia Plateau Fishers
     Great Basin Foragers
     First Buffalo Hunters of the Plains
     First Farmers of the Southwest
     Farmers and Mound Builders of the Eastern Woodlands
     Emerging Tribes and Confederacies
Seaborne Strangers   DOCUMENTS
A Navajo Emergence Story and an Iroquois Creation Story
     Hastin Tlo’tsi hee, The Beginning
     John Norton, Iroquois Creation Story (c. 1816)
The Iroquois Great League of Peace
     Chiefs of the Six Nations, The Laws of the Confederacy (1900) PICTURE ESSAY: Early American Cities, Settlements, and Centers
     The Ruins of Pueblo Bonito
     Cliff Palace at Mesa Verde
     Cahokia Mounds, c. A.D. 1150-1200
     John White, Indian Village of Secoton (1585)
     Iroquois Longhouse   References
Suggested Readings

Chapter 2: The Invasions of America, 1492-1680
First Contacts and Mutual Appraisals
     Native America through the European Lens
     Enduring Images
Columbian Exchanges
     Changing New World Landscapes
     Biological Catastrophes
Indians Confront the Spanish
     A Mission for Gold and God
     Conquest of the Aztecs
     Searching for Other Empires
     North American Attempts to Colonize and Christianize
     The Pueblo War of Independence
Indians Confront the French
     Commerce and Conflict
     Pelts and Priests
Indians Confront the English
     Securing a Beachhead in Virginia
     Making a New England
     King Philip’s War   DOCUMENTS
Cooperation, Contagion, and Conflict
     William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation
A Jesuit Assesses the Hurons and a Mi’kmaq Assesses the French
     Jean de Brébeuf, The Mission to the Hurons (1635-37)
     Chrestien LeClerq, A Mi’kmaq Questions French “Civilization” (1677)
Two Indian Wars of Independence
     John Easton, Metacomet Explains the Causes of “King Philip’s War,” from A Relacion of the Indyan Warre (1675)
     Declaration of the Indian Juan (1681)   PICTURE ESSAY: Images of Invasion
     William Powell, The Discovery of the Mississippi by De Soto in 1541 (1853)
     Spaniards on Horseback
     Wampum Belt, Made by Lenni Lenape (Delaware) Indian People, Pennsylvania
     Haida Carving of a Missionary, c. 1820-60
     Homeland Security: Fighting Terrorism since 1492
References
Suggested Readings   Chapter 3: Indians in Colonial Worlds, 1680-1763
Economic and Cultural Exchanges
     Indians in Colonial Societies
     Colonists in Indian Societies
Fur Trades and Slave Trades
     The Impact of the Fur Trade
     The Cost of the Fur Trade
     Indian Slavery
Diplomacy in Colonial America
     The Language and Lessons of Diplomacy
     Attempts at Diplomatic Balance
Wars for America
     A World Transformed by War
     The French and English War
     Division within Tribal Communities
     Captives Taken, Captives Returned
Responses to Change in the West: Indian Power on the Plains
     Horses Transform the Plains
     Jostling for Position on the Plains
     At the Confluence of Guns and Horses
     War and Diplomacy on the Southern Plains

DOCUMENTS
An English Treaty and a Penobscot Response
     Treaty between the Abenaki Indians and the English at Casco Bay (1727)
     Loron Sauguaarum, An Account of Negotiations Leading to the Casco Bay Treaty (1727)
Indian Foreign Policies and Imperial Rivalries
     Ateawaneto, Speech Defying the English (1752)
     Christian Frederick Post, Negotiations with the Delawares (1758)
A Captive with the Senecas
     Mary Jemison (Dickewamis), A Narrative of Her Life (1824)

PICTURE ESSAY: Atlantic Travelers: Indians in Eighteenth-Century London
     John Verelst, Tac Yec Neen Ho Gar Ton (Hendrick, “Emperor of the Six Nations”) (1701)
     Isaac Basire, Seven Cherokees (1730)
     William Verelst, Creek Delegation Meets the Trustees of Georgia (1734)
     Francis Parsons, Cunne Shote (1762)
     Jonathan Spilsbury, after Mason Chamberlain, The Reverend Mr. Samson Occom (1768)

References
Suggested Readings

Chapter 4: Revolutions East and West, 1763-1800
Worlds Turned Upside Down
     Pontiac’s War: Indians Confront a New Empire
     Attempting to Draw a Line
Indians and the American Revolution
     Indian Loyalties Divided
     Treaties of Peace and Conquest
Indians Confront an Expanding Nation
     The United States Develops an Indian – and a Land – Policy
     Indians Build a United Defense
Upheavals in the West
     Emerging and Colliding Powers on the Plains
     California Missions
     The Pacific Northwest Pelt Rush
     Smallpox Used Them Up

DOCUMENTS
The Revolution Divides the Iroquois and the Cherokees
     An Oneida Declaration of Neutrality (1775)
     Henry Stuart, Report from Cherokee Country (1776)
An Indian Solution to the Conflict over Indian Lands
     Western Indians, Message to the Commissioners of the United States (1793)

PICTURE ESSAY: Northwest Coast Indians on the Brink: The Drawings of John Webber
     John Webber, A View in Ship Cove, Nootka Sound (1778)
     John Webber, Interior of Habitation at Nootka Sound (1778)
     John Webber, A Woman of Nootka Sound (1778)
     John Webber, A Man of Nootka Sound (1778)
     John Webber, A Woman of Prince William’s Island (1778)
     John Webber, A Man of Oonalashka (1778)

References
Suggested Readings

Chapter 5: American Indians and the New Nation, 1800-1840
Accommodating and Resisting Change
     Adapting to New Ways
     The Last Phases of United Indian Resistance
Lewis and Clark in Indian Country
     Encounters on the Missouri
     Over the Mountains and Back
Indian Removals
     Roots of the Removal Policy
     The Cherokee Resistance
     Implementing Removal in the South
     Removal in the North
     Surviving behind the Frontier: Race, Class, and History in Nineteenth-Century New England

DOCUMENTS
A Double Homicide at Two Medicine
     Meriwether Lewis, An Account of His Fight with the Blackfeet (1806)
Cherokee and White Women Oppose Removal
     Cherokee Women, Petition (May 2, 1817)
     Cherokee Women, Petition (June 30, 1818)
     Petition from the Women of Steubenville, Ohio (1830)
Foundations of Federal Indian Law and a Native Response
     John Marshall, Cherokee Nation v. State of Georgia (1831) and Worcester v. Georgia (1832)
     John Ross, Reactions to Worcester v. Georgia: Letter to Richard Taylor, John Baldridge, Sleeping Rabbit, Sicketowee, and Wahachee (April 28, 1832)

PICTURE ESSAY: Indian Life on the Upper Missouri: A Catlin/Bodmer Portfolio
     Karl Bodmer, The Interior of the Hut of a Mandan Chief
     Diagram of the Interior of an Earth Lodge
     George Catlin, Mint, a Pretty Girl
     Karl Bodmer, Pehriska-Ruhpa, Moennitarri Warrior, in the Costume of the Dog Dance
     George Catlin, Pigeon’s Egg Head (The Light) Going to and Returning from Washington

References
Suggested Readings

Chapter 6: Defending the West, 1840-1890
Invaders from the East: Incursions before the American Civil War
     The Ravages of Disease
     Ethnic Cleansing in Texas, c. 1836-48
     American Empire Reaches the Pacific Northwest, 1846-56
     Genocide and Exploitation in California
     Opening Clashes on the Plains
Wars and Treaties, 1861-74
     Indian Experiences during the American Civil War
     Final Treaties and Ongoing Conflicts, 1866-74
Land Seizure and Removal to Reservations
     Battles for Sacred Lands and Homelands, 1875-78
     The End of Apache Resistance
Different Strategies for Survival
     Indian Scouts and Allies
     Return of the Prophets

DOCUMENTS
Sixty Years of Kiowa History
     The Dohasan Calendar (1832-92)
The Sioux, the Treaty of Fort Laramie, and the Black Hills
     Iron Shell, Brulé Sioux, “We want you to take away the forts from the country.” (April 28, 1868)
     Treaty with the Sioux – Brulé, Oglala, Miniconjou, Yanktonai, Hunkpapa, Blackfeet, Cuthead, Two Kettle, Sans Arcs, and Santee – and Arapaho (1868)
Chief Joseph’s Plea for Freedom
     Chief Joseph, An Indian’s View of Indian Affairs (1879)

PICTURE ESSAY: The Battle of the Little Bighorn in Myth and History
     William Cary, The Death Struggle of General Custer (1876)
     Custer’s Last Stand (1904)
     Little Big Man (1970)
     Lakotas Fighting Custer’s Command
     Indian Memorial at Little Bighorn

References
Suggested Readings

Chapter 7: “Kill the Indian and Save the Man,” 1870s-1920s
Americanizing the American Indian
     Policies of Detribalization
     Resistance Takes New Forms
     The Dawes Allotment Act (1887)
     Indian Territory Becomes Oklahoma
The Educational Assault on Indian Children
     Removing Children from the Tribe
     Life in the Schools
     Surviving the Schools, Using the Education
     The Two Worlds of Ohiyesa and Charles Eastman
Native Americans Enter the Twentieth Century
     “I Still Live”: Indians in American Society
     Cultural Expression and the American Way
     A New Generation of Leaders
     Soldiers and Citizens
     Indian Affairs on the Eve of the Great Depression

DOCUMENTS
A Reformer Views “the Indian Problem” and an Indian Reformer Views the Indian Bureau
     Merrill E. Gates, From the Seventeenth Annual Report of the Board of Indian Commissioners (1885)
     Carlos Montezuma, What Indians Must Do (1914)
Two Sioux School Experiences
     Luther Standing Bear, What a School Could Have Been Established (1933)
     Zitkala-Ša, The Melancholy of Those Black Days (1921)

PICTURE ESSAY: The Fort Marion Artists
     Howling Wolf, Cheyenne Warrior Striking and Enemy
     Courtship Scene
     Paul Caryl Zotom, On the Parapet of Ft. Marion Next Day after Arrival (c. 1875)
     Distribution of Goods
     Chief Killer, Education of the Fort Marion Prisoners (1875-78)
     Wohaw, Self-Portrait, c. 1876-77

References
Suggested Readings

Chapter 8: From the Great Crash to Alcatraz, 1929-1969
A New Era in Indian Affairs?
     John Collier and the Indian New Deal
     The Indian Reorganization Act
     Opposing and Disputing the IRA
     Indians and World War II
Termination
     The Indian Claims Commission
     Removing the Government’s Trust Responsibilities
     Relocation and Urban Indians
     Drowning Homelands
A Younger Generation Responds
     Upheaval in America
     The Rise of Indian Militancy

DOCUMENTS
Two Views of the Indian Reorganization Act
     John Collier, An “Indian Renaissance,” from the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs (1935)
     Robert Burnette and John Koster, A Blueprint for Elected Tyranny (1974)
Indians in the Cities
     Ignatia Broker, Brought to a Brotherhood (1983)
Documents of Indian Militancy
     Clyde Warrior, “We Are Not Free”: From Testimony before the President’s National Advisory Commission on Rural Poverty (1967)
     Indians of All Tribes, Proclamation to the Great White Father and to All His People (1969)

PICTURE ESSAY: Indians and World War II
     Banning the Swastika
     Iroquois Declare War on the Axis Powers on the Steps of the U.S. Capitol, June 1942
     Indian Women in the Marine Corps Reserve
     Navajo Code Talkers, December 1943
     Flag Raising at Iwo Jima
     Quincy Tahoma, First Furlough (1943)

References
Suggested Readings

Chapter 9: Self-Determination and Sovereignty, 1970-2010
New Policies, New Militancy
     The American Indian Movement
     Siege at Wounded Knee
     Legacies of Wounded Knee
From Paternalism to Partnership
     Protecting Women’s Reproductive Rights
     Regaining Rights: Child Welfare and Religious Freedom
Taking Back Education
     Indian Education for Indian Students
     Tribal Colleges
The Struggle for Natural Resources
     Coal, Uranium, and Oil
     Fighting For and Against Water
Sovereignty Goes to Court
     Victories for Tribal Rights
     Chipping Away at Tribal Sovereignty
A New Era in Washington?
     Changes at the BIA
     Repatriation and a New Museum
     A New Embassy and a New “White Father”

DOCUMENTS
A Woman’s View from Wounded Knee
     Mary Crow Dog, I Would Have My Baby at Wounded Knee (1991)
The Supreme Court and Tribal Sovereignty: The Oliphant Decision and Its Impact in Indian Country
     Supreme Court of the United States, Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe (1978)
     N. Bruce Duthu, Broken Justice in Indian Country (2008)
Indian Leadership at the End of the Twentieth Century
     Vine Deloria Jr., The Popularity of Being Indian: A New Trend in Contemporary American Society (1984)
     Wilma Mankiller, Returning the Balance (1993)

PICTURE ESSAY: Indian Artists Depict Modern Indian Life
     David P. Bradley, Indian Country Today (1997)
     Harry Fonseca, Coyote Woman in the City (1979)
     Peter Jones, Sovereign Indian
     Jack Malotte, It’s Hard to Be Traditional When You’re All Plugged In
     Bunky Echo-Hawk, Before Here Was Here

References
Suggested Readings

Chapter 10: Nations within a Nation: Indian Country Today
A Twenty-First-Century Renaissance
     The Census: An Evolving Profile of Indian America
     Who Is an Indian?
     “Recognized” and “Nonrecognized” Tribes
     Old Stereotypes and New Images
Self-Rule and Self-Help
     Nations, Not Minorities
     Third Sovereigns, Triple Citizens, and Tribal Justice
Building Prosperity in Indian Country
     Economic Success through Sovereignty
     Gaming: A Devil’s Bargain?
Homelands or Wastelands
     Nuclear Waste in Indian Country
     The Earth Hurts
     Global Warming and New Partnerships
Building Well Nations
     Confronting Drugs and Alcohol
     Balancing Ways of Healing
     Restoring Safety to Native Women
     The Welfare of Indian Children
     Revitalizing Nations: Preserving Language and Culture

DOCUMENTS
Playing Indian and Fighting Mascots
     Suzan Shown Harjo, Washington “Redskins” Is a Racist Name: U.S. Pro Football Must Disavow It (January 2013)
     Dan Snyder, Letter to Washington Redskins Fans (October 2013)
U.S.-Indian Relations on a World Stage
     General Assembly of the United Nations, United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (September 13, 2007)
 
PICTURE ESSAY: Tribal Sovereignty in Action
     Pawnee Nation Flag
     Tlingit Tribal Assembly
     Tribal Police
     Navajo Supreme Court
     Language Immersion Program
     Tipis on the Mall

References
Suggested Readings

INDEX