First Peoples

Preface
Maps, Tables, and Charts

Introductions: Native Americans in American History
Perspectives on the Past
America’s Master Narrative
Native American History: A Shared Past
Working with Sources
References

Chapter 1: American History before Columbus
Name Usage and Geographic Focus
Determining What Came Before
Precontact Population
Creation Stories and Migration Theories
Debates over Native Origins
Glimpses of Precontact Societies
West Coast Affluence
Columbia Plateau Fishers
Great Basin Foragers
First Buffalo Hunters of the Plains
First Farmers of the Southwest
Farmers and Mound Builders of the Eastern Woodlands
Emerging Tribes and Confederacies
Seaborne Strangers
Conclusion
Chapter Review
DOCUMENTS
A Navajo Emergence Story and an Iroquois Creation Story
Hastin Tlo’tsi hee, The Beginning
John Norton, Iroquois Creation Story (c. 1816)
PICTURE ESSAY: Early American Cities, Settlements, and Centers
References
Suggested Readings

Chapter 2: The Invasions of America: Encounters, Epidemics, and Exchanges, 1492–1700s
First Contacts and Mutual Appraisals
Native America through the European Lens
Enduring Images
Columbian Exchanges
Changing New World Landscapes
Biological Catastrophes
The Spanish Invasions
A Mission for Gold and God
Conquest of the Aztecs
Searching for Other Empires
North American Attempts to Colonize and Christianize
Native Peoples Discover the French
Commerce and Conflict
Pelts and Priests
English Footholds on the East Coast
Securing a Beachhead in Virginia
Making a New England
Economic and Cultural Exchanges
Indian Peoples in Colonial Societies
Colonists in Indian Societies
Fur Trades and Slave Trades
The Impact of the Fur Trade
The Cost of the Fur Trade
Indian Slavery
Conclusion
Chapter Review
DOCUMENTS
Cooperation, Contagion, and Conflict in New England
William Bradford (1590–1657), Of Plymouth Plantation
Lion Gardener, Miantonomi Calls for United Action against the English (1642)
A Jesuit Assesses the Hurons and a Mi’kmaq Assesses the French
Jean de Brébeuf, The Mission to the Hurons (1635–1637)
Chrestien LeClerq, A Mikmaq Questions French “Civilization” (1677)
Picture Essay: Images of Spanish Invasion
References
Suggested Readings

Chapter 3: War and Diplomacy in Colonial America, 1675-1763
A New World of Warfare and Words
Two Indian Wars of Independence
King Philip’s War
The Pueblo War of Independence
The Languages and Lessons of Indian Diplomacy
Attempts at Diplomatic Balance
Wars for America
A World Transformed by War
The French and English War
Division within Tribal Communities
Captives Taken, Captives Returned
Responses to Change in the West: Power on the Plains
Horses Transform the Plains
Jostling for Position on the Plains
At the Confluence of Guns and Horses
War and Diplomacy on the Southern Plains
Conclusion
Chapter Review
DOCUMENTS
Indian Reasons for Going to War
John Easton, Metacom Explains the Causes of “King Philip’s War,” from A Relacion of the Indyan Warre (1675)
Declaration of the Indian Juan (1681)
Indian Responses to English Treaties
Loron Sauguaarum, An Account of Negotiations Leading to the Casco Bay Treaty (1727)
Canasatego, Speech at the Treaty of Lancaster (July 4, 1744)
Imperial Conflict with the Senecas
Tanaghrisson, Speech Defying the French
Mary Jemison (Dickewamis), A Narrative of Her Life (1824)
Picture Essay: Indian Diplomats in Eighteenth-Century London
References
Suggested Readings

Chapter 4: Worlds Turned Upside Down, 1763-1800
Transforming the Map of North America
Pontiac’s War: Indian Peoples Confront a New Empire
Attempting to Draw a Line
Native Americans and the American Revolution
Divided Loyalties
Treaties of Peace and Conquest
Confronting an Expanding Nation
The United States Develops an Indian –– and a Land –– Policy
Indian Nations Build a United Defense
Upheavals in the West
Emerging and Colliding Powers on the Plains
California Missions
The Pacific Northwest Pelt Rush
Smallpox Used Them Up
Conclusion
Chapter Review
DOCUMENTS
The Revolution Divides the Iroquois and the Cherokees
An Oneida Declaration of Neutrality (1775)
Henry Stuart, Report from Cherokee Country (1776)
An Indian Solution to the Conflict over Indian Lands
Western Indians, Message to the Commissioners of the United States (1793)
Smallpox Strikes the Blackfeet
Saukamappee, Death Came over Us All
PICTURE ESSAY: Revolutionary Leaders and Founding Fathers
References
Suggested Readings

Chapter 5: Native Nations and the New Nation, 1800-1840
Accommodating and Resisting Change
Adapting to New Ways
The Last Phases of United Resistance
Lewis and Clark in Indian Country
Encounters on the Missouri
Over the Mountains and Back
Indian Removals
Roots of the Removal Policy
The Cherokee Resistance
Implementing Removal in the South
Removal in the North
Surviving “behind the Frontier”: Race, Class, and History in Nineteenth-Century New England
Conclusion
Chapter Review
DOCUMENTS
The Duplicity of Jefferson and the Vision of Tecumseh
Thomas Jefferson, Confidential Letter to Governor William Henry Harrison, February 27, 1803
Tecumseh, Speech to the Osages (c. 1811)
Cherokee Women Oppose Removal
Cherokee Women, Petition (May 2, 1817, June 30, 1818)
Foundations of Federal Indian Law and a Native Response
John Marshall, Cherokee Nation v. State of Georgia (1831) and Worcester v. Georgia (1832)
John Ross, Reactions to Worcester v. Georgia: Letter to Richard Taylor, John Baldridge, Sleeping Rabbit, Sicketowee, and Wahachee (April 28, 1832)
PICTURE ESSAY: Indian Life on the Upper Missouri: A Catlin/Bodmer Portfolio
References
Suggested Readings

Chapter 6: Defending the West, 1840-1890
Invaders from the East: Incursions before the American Civil War
The Ravages of Disease
Ethnic Cleansing in Texas, c. 1836-1848
American Empire Reaches the Pacific Northwest, 1846-1856
Genocide and Exploitation in California
Opening Clashes on the Plains, 1851-1856
Wars and Treaties, 1861-1874
Native American Experiences during the American Civil War
Final Treaties and Ongoing Conflicts, 1866-1874
Land Seizure and Removal to Reservations
Battles for Sacred Lands and Homelands, 1875-1878
The End of Apache Resistance
Return of the Prophets
Conclusion
Chapter Review

DOCUMENTS
Sixty Years of Kiowa History
The Dohasan Calendar (1832-1892)
The Sioux, the Treaty of Fort Laramie, and the Black Hills
Treaty with the Sioux — Brulé, Oglala, Miniconjou, Yanktonai, Hunkpapa, Blackfeet, Cuthead, Two Kettle, Sans Arcs, and Santee — and Arapaho (1868)
Chief Joseph’s Plea for Freedom
Chief Joseph, An Indian’s View of Indian Affairs (1879)
PICTURE ESSAY: Scouts and Allies: The “Other Indians” in the Wars for the West
References
Suggested Readings

Chapter 7: “Kill the Indian and Save the Man,” 1870s-1924
Americanizing the American Indian
Policies of Detribalization
Resistance Takes New Forms
The Dawes Allotment Act (1887)
Indian Territory Becomes Oklahoma
The Educational Assault on Indian Children
Removing Children from the Tribe
Life in the Schools
Surviving the Schools, Using the Education
The Two Worlds of Ohiyesa and Charles Eastman
Native Americans Enter the Twentieth Century
“I Still Live”: Native Americans in American Society
Cultural Expression and the American Way
A New Generation of Leaders
Soldiers and Citizens
Oil and Citizenship
Conclusion
Chapter Review
DOCUMENTS
Two Indian Reformers View “the Indian Problem”
Susette La Flesche, The Indian Question (1880)
Carlos Montezuma, What Indians Must Do (1914)
Two Sioux School Experiences
Luther Standing Bear, What a School Could Have Been Established (1933)
Zitkala-Ša, The Melancholy of Those Black Days (1921)
PICTURE ESSAY: The Fort Marion Artists
References
Suggested Readings

Chapter 8: From the Great Crash to Wounded Knee, 1929-1974
A New Era in Indian Affairs?
John Collier and the Indian New Deal
The Indian Reorganization Act
Opposing and Disputing the IRA
Native Americans and World War II
Termination
The Indian Claims Commission
Removing the Government’s Trust Responsibilities
Relocation and Urban Indians
Drowning Homelands
A Younger Generation Responds
Upheaval in America
The Rise of Indian Militancy
The American Indian Movement
Siege at Wounded Knee
Legacies of Wounded Knee
Reaching beyond the United States
Conclusion
Chapter Review
DOCUMENTS
Two Views from the BIA of the Indian Reorganization Act
John Collier, An “Indian Renaissance,” from the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs (1935)
D’Arcy McNickle, Four Years of Indian Reorganization
Native Americans in the Cities
Ignatia Broker, Brought to a Brotherhood (1983)
Documents of Indian Militancy
Clyde Warrior, “We Are Not Free”: From Testimony before the President’s National Advisory Commission on Rural Poverty (1967)
Indians of All Tribes, Proclamation to the Great White Father and to All His People (1969)
PICTURE ESSAY: Native Americans and World War II
References
Suggested Readings

Chapter 9: Self-Determination and Sovereignty, 1970-2000
From Paternalism to Partnership
Progress in Washington
Protecting Women’s Reproductive Rights and Native Families’ Rights
Religious Freedom and Repatriation
Taking Back Education
Indian Education for Indian Students
Tribal Colleges
The Struggle for Natural Resources
Coal, Uranium, Oil, and Gas
Nuclear Waste in Indian Country
Fighting for and against Water
Sovereignty Goes to Court
 Victories for Tribal Rights
Chipping Away at Tribal Sovereignty
Economic Success through Sovereignty
The Rise of Indian Gaming
A Devil’s Bargain?
Conclusion
Chapter Review
DOCUMENTS
The Supreme Court and Tribal Sovereignty
Supreme Court of the United States, Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe (1978)
Indian Leadership at the End of the Twentieth Century
Vine Deloria, Jr., The Popularity of Being Indian: A New Trend in Contemporary American Society (1984)
Wilma Mankiller, Testimony before the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Indian Affairs (1991)
PICTURE ESSAY: Native Artists Depict Native Americans in Modern America
References
Suggested Readings

Chapter 10: Nations within a Nation: Indian Country Today, 2000-present
New Eras in Washington
Changes at the BIA
A New Museum
The Political Pendulum
A Profile of Indian America
The Demographic Profile
Who Is Indian?
“Recognized” and “Nonrecognized” Tribes
Old Stereotypes and New Images
“The White Man’s Indian”
Playing Indian and Fighting Mascots
Nations within a Nation
Nations, Not Minorities
Third Sovereigns, Triple Citizens, and Tribal Justice
Global Indigenous Nations
The Health and Wealth of the Nations
Confronting Drugs and Alcohol
Balancing Ways of Healing
Battling COVID-19
Restoring Safety to Tribal Citizens
So Many Red Dresses
The Welfare of Indian Children
Preserving Heritage and Language
Building Tribal Prosperity
Homelands, Not Wastelands
Protecting Land and Water
Protesting Pipelines
“The Earth Hurts”
Conclusion: History Matters
Chapter Review
DOCUMENTS
Protecting Native Women
Deborah Parker, I Am a Native American Statistic (2012)
Louise Erdrich, Rape on the Reservation (2013)
Pipelines and Treaty Rights
United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, Statement on the Dakota Access Pipeline (November 4, 2016)
Dave Archambault II, Standing Rock Sioux Tribe v. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (February 10, 2017)
PICTURE ESSAY: Tribal Sovereignty in Action
References
Suggested Readings