About

Your college writing will be one way you put your ideas and your self out into the world. A Writer’s Reference helps you strengthen your skills for that important work. It helps you develop a range of literacies – writing, reading, thinking, collaborating, using information, and working responsibly with AI. And it teaches concrete, flexible strategies for applying your human intelligence to artificial intelligence – both in and out of academic writing. A Writer’s Reference helps you “do you” – because AI simply can’t.

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C | Composing and Revising

C1 Planning

a. Build your academic intelligence.
b. Assess your writing situation.
c. Explore your subject.
d. Draft and revise a working thesis statement.
e Draft a plan.

C2 Drafting

a. Draft an introduction.
b. Draft the body.
c. Draft a conclusion.

C3 Writing paragraphs

a. Focus on a main point.
b. Develop the main point.
c. Make paragraphs coherent.
d. If necessary, adjust paragraph length.
e. Choose a suitable strategy for developing paragraphs.

C4 Reviewing, revising, and editing

a. Use peer review: Give constructive comments.
b. Learn from peer review: Revise with comments.
c. Reflect on comments: Develop a revision plan.
d. One student’s peer review process.
e. Approach global revision in cycles.
f. Revise globally by making a reverse outline.
g. Revise and edit sentences.
h. Proofread and format your work.
i. Sample student revision: Literacy narrative.

C5 Reflecting on your writing; preparing a portfolio

a. Reflect on your writing.
b. Prepare a portfolio.
c. Student writing: Reflective letter for a portfolio.

A | Academic Reading and Writing

A1 Reading and writing critically

a. Read actively.
b. Outline a text to identify main ideas.
c. Summarize to deepen your understanding.
d. Analyze to demonstrate your critical thinking.
e. Sample student essay: Analysis of an article.

A2 Reading and writing about multimodal texts

a. Read actively.
b. Summarize a multimodal text to deepen your understanding.
c Analyze a multimodal text to demonstrate your critical reading.
d Sample student writing: Analysis of an advertisement.

A3 Reading arguments

a. Read with an open mind and a critical eye.
b. Evaluate ethical, logical, and emotional appeals as a reader.
c. Evaluate the evidence behind an argument.
d. Identify underlying assumptions.
e. Evaluate how fairly a writer handles opposing views.

A4 Writing arguments

a Identify your purpose and context.
b. View your audience as skeptical readers.
c. Build common ground with your audience.
d. In your introduction, establish credibility and state your position.
e. Back up your thesis with persuasive lines of argument.
f. Support your thesis with specific evidence.
g. Anticipate objections; counter opposing arguments.
h. Sample student writing: Argument.

A5 Writing in the disciplines

a. Find commonalities across disciplines.
b. Recognize the questions writers in a discipline ask.
c. Understand the kinds of evidence writers in a discipline use.
d. Become familiar with a discipline’s language conventions.
e. Use a discipline’s preferred citation style.

R| Researched writing

R1 Thinking like a researcher; gathering sources

a. Manage the project.
b. Ask questions worth exploring.
c. Map out a search strategy.
d. Search efficiently; master a few shortcuts to finding good sources.
e. Keep yourself on track with a research proposal.
f. Conduct field research, if appropriate.

R2 Managing information; taking notes responsibly

a. Maintain a working bibliography.
b. Keep track of source materials.
c. As you take notes, avoid unintentional plagiarism.

R3 Evaluating sources

a. Evaluate the reliability and usefulness of sources.
b. Read with an open mind and a critical eye.
c. Assess sources for reliability and purpose.
d. Construct an annotated bibliography.

MLA | MLA Style

List of MLA in-text citation models

List of MLA works cited models

MLA-1 Supporting a thesis

a. Form a working thesis.
b. Organize your ideas with a rough outline.
c. Consider how sources will contribute to your essay.

MLA-2 Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism

a. Understand how the MLA system works.
b. Understand what plagiarism is.
c. Use quotation marks around borrowed language.
d. Put summaries and paraphrases in your own words.

MLA-3 Integrating sources

a. Summarize and paraphrase effectively.
b. Use quotations effectively.
c. Use signal phrases to integrate sources.
d. Synthesize sources.

MLA-4 Documenting sources

a. MLA in-text citations.
b. MLA list of works cited.
c. MLA information notes. (optional)

MLA-5 MLA format; sample research essay

a. MLA format.
b. Sample research essay in MLA style.

APA CMS | APA Style and CMS Style

List of APA in-text citation models

List of APA reference list models

APA-1 Supporting a thesis

a. Form a working thesis.
b. Organize your ideas.
c. Consider how sources will contribute to your essay.

APA-2 Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism

a. Understand how the APA system works.
b. Understand what plagiarism is.
c. Use quotation marks around borrowed language.
d. Put summaries and paraphrases in your own words.

APA-3 Integrating sources

a. Summarize and paraphrase effectively.
b. Use quotations effectively.
c. Use signal phrases to integrate sources.
d. Synthesize sources.

APA-4 Documenting sources

a. APA in-text citations.
b. APA list of references.

APA-5 APA format; sample research essay

a. APA format.
b. Sample research essay in APA style.

CMS (Chicago) style

List of CMS-style notes and bibliography entries

CMS-1 Supporting a thesis

a. Form a working thesis.
b. Organize your ideas.
c. Consider how sources will contribute to your essay.

CMS-2 Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism

a. Use the CMS system for citing sources.
b. Understand what plagiarism is.
c. Use quotation marks around borrowed language.
d. Put summaries and paraphrases in your own words.

CMS-3 Integrating sources

a. Use quotations effectively.
b. Use signal phrases to integrate sources.

CMS-4 Documenting sources

a. First and later notes for a source.
b. CMS-style bibliography.
c. Model notes and bibliography entries.

CMS-5 Chicago format; sample research essay

a. CMS format.
b. Sample pages from a Chicago-style essay.

S | Sentence Style

S1 Parallelism

a. Balance parallel ideas in a series.
b. Balance parallel ideas presented as pairs.
c Repeat function words to clarify parallels.

S2 Needed words

a. Add words needed to complete compound structures.
b. Add the word that where needed for clarity.
c. Add words needed to make comparisons logical and complete.
d. Add the articles a, an, and the where necessary for grammatical completeness.

S3 Problems with modifiers

a. Put limiting modifiers in front of the words they modify.
b. Place phrases and clauses so that readers can see at a glance what they modify.
c. Move awkwardly placed modifiers.
d. Avoid split infinitives when they are awkward.
e. Repair dangling modifiers.

S4 Shifts

a. Make the point of view consistent in person and number.
b. Maintain consistent verb tenses.
c. Make verbs consistent in voice.
d. Avoid sudden shifts from indirect to direct questions or quotations.

S5 Mixed constructions

a. Untangle the grammatical structure.
b. Straighten out the logical connections.
c. Avoid is when, is where, and reason . . . is because constructions

S6 Sentence emphasis

a. Coordinate equal ideas; subordinate minor ideas.
b. Combine choppy sentences.
c. Avoid ineffective and excessive coordination.
d. Do not subordinate major ideas.
e. Do not subordinate excessively.
f. Experiment with techniques for gaining emphasis.

S7 Sentence variety

a. Vary your sentence openings.
b. Use a variety of sentence structures.
c. Try inverting sentences occasionally.

W | Word Choice

W1 Glossary of usage

W2 Wordy sentences

a. Eliminate redundancies.
b. Avoid unnecessary repetition of words.
c. Cut empty or inflated phrases.
d. Simplify the structure.
e. Reduce clauses to phrases, phrases to single words.

W3 Active verbs

a. Choose active voice or passive voice depending on your writing situation.
b. Replace be verbs that result in dull or wordy sentences.
c. As a rule, choose a subject that names the person or thing doing the action.

W4 Language that fits the writing situation

a. Avoid jargon, except in specialized writing situations.
b. Avoid most euphemisms and doublespeak.
c. In most contexts, avoid slang.
d. Choose a level of formality that fits the writing situation.
e. Avoid sexist and noninclusive language.

W5 Exact language

a. Select words with their connotations in mind.
b. Prefer specific, concrete nouns.
c. Do not misuse words.
d. Use common idioms.
e. Do not rely heavily on clichés.
f. Use figures of speech with care.

G | Grammatical Sentences

G1 Subject-verb agreement

a. Learn to recognize typical subject-verb combinations.
b. Make the verb agree with its subject, not with a word the comes between.
c. Treat most subjects joined with and as plural.
d. With subjects joined with or or nor (or with either. . .or or neither. . .nor), make the verb agree with the part of the subject nearer to the verb.
e. Treat most indefinite pronouns as singular.
f. Treat collective nouns as singular unless the meaning is clearly plural.
g. Make the verb agree with its subject even when the subject follows the verb.
h. Make the verb agree with its subject, not with a subject complement.
i. Who, which and that take verbs that agree with their antecedents.
j. Words such as athletics, economics, physics, statistics, and news are usually singular, despite their plural form.
k. Titles of works, company names, words mentioned as words, and gerund phrases are singular.

G2 Verb form, tenses, and moods

a. Choose among the forms of irregular verbs.
b. Distinguish among the forms of lie and lay.
c. Use -s (or -es) endings on present-tense verbs that have third-person singular subjects.
d. Do not omit -ed endings on verbs.
e. Do not omit needed verbs.
f. Choose the verb tense that suits your meaning.
g. Use the subjunctive mood in the few contexts that require it.

G3 Pronouns

a. Make pronouns and antecedents agree.
b. Make pronoun references clear.
c. Distinguish between pronouns such as I and me.
d. Distinguish between who and whom.

G4 Adjectives and adverbs

a. Use adjectives to modify nouns.
b. Use adverbs to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
c. Distinguish between good and well, bad and badly.
d. Use comparatives and superlatives with care.
e. Avoid double negatives.

G5 Sentence fragments

a. Test for sentence completeness.
b. Attach fragmented subordinate clauses or turn them into sentences.
c. Attach fragmented phrases or turn them into sentences.
d. Attach other fragmented word groups or turn them into sentences.
e. Exception: A fragment may be used for effect.

G6 Run-on sentences

a. Recognize run-on sentences.
b. Consider separating the clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.
c. Consider separating the clauses with a semicolon, a colon, or a dash.
d. Consider making the clauses into separate sentences.
e. Consider restructuring the sentence, perhaps by subordinating one of the clauses.

M | Multilingual Writers and ESL Topics

M1 Verbs

a. Use an appropriate verb form and tense.
b.For a verb in the passive voice, use a form of be with the past participle.
c. Use the base form of the verb after a modal.
d. To make negative verb forms, add not in the appropriate place.
e. In a conditional sentence, choose verb tenses according to the type of condition.
f. Become familiar with verbs that may be followed by gerunds or infinitives.

M2 Articles

a. Be familiar with articles and other noun markers.
b. Use the with most specific common nouns.
c. Use a (or an) with common singular count nouns that refer to “one” or “any.”
d. Use a quantifier such as some or more, not a or an, with a noncount noun to express an approximate amount.
e. Do not use articles with nouns that refer to all of something or to something in general.
f. Do not use articles with most singular proper nouns. Use the with most plural proper nouns.

M3 Sentence structure

a. Use a linking verb between a subject and its complement.
b. Include a subject in every sentence.
c. Do not use both a noun and a pronoun to perform the same grammatical function in a sentence.
d. Do not repeat a subject, an object, or an adverb in an adjective clause.
e. Avoid mixed constructions beginning with although or because.
f. Do not place an adverb between a verb and its direct object.

M4 Using adjectives

a. Distinguish between present participles and past participles used as adjectives.
b. Place cumulative adjectives in an appropriate order.

M5 Prepositions and idiomatic expressions

a. Become familiar with prepositions that show time and place.
b. Use nouns (including -ing forms) after prepositions.
c. Become familiar with common adjective + preposition combinations.
d. Become familiar with common verb + preposition combinations.

M6 Paraphrasing sources effectively

a. Avoid replacing a source’s words with synonyms.
b. Determine the meaning of the original source.
c. Present the author’s meaning in your own words.

P | Punctuation and Mechanics

P1 The comma

a. Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction joining independent clauses.
b. Use a comma after an introductory clause or phrase.
c. Use a comma between items in a series.
d. Use a comma between coordinate adjectives not joined with and. Do not use a comma between cumulative adjectives.
e. Use commas to set off nonrestrictive (nonessential) elements. Do not use commas to set off restrictive (essential) elements.
f. Use commas to set off transitional and parenthetical expressions, absolute phrases, and word groups expressing contrast.
g. Use commas to set off nouns of direct address, yes/no, interrogative tags, and mild interjections.
h. Use commas with expressions such as he said to set off direct quotations.
i. Use commas with dates, addresses, titles, and numbers.

P2 Unnecessary commas

a. Do not use a comma with a coordinating conjunction that joins only two words, phrases, or subordinate clauses.
b. Do not use a comma to separate a verb from its subject or object.
c. Do not use a comma before the first or after the last item in a series.
d. Do not use a comma between cumulative adjectives, between an adjective and a noun, or between an adverb and an adjective.
e. Do not use commas to set off restrictive elements.
f. Do not use commas to set off a concluding adverb clause that is essential to the meaning.
g. Do not use a comma after a phrase that begins an inverted sentence.
h. Avoid other common misuses of the comma.

P3 The semicolon and the colon

a. Use a semicolon between closely related independent clauses.
b. Use a semicolon between items in a series containing internal punctuation.
c. Avoid common misuses of the semicolon.
d. Use a colon after an independent clause for a list, an appositive, a quotation, or a summary.
e. Use a colon according to convention.
f. Avoid common misuses of the colon.

P4 The apostrophe

a. Use an apostrophe to indicate that a noun is possessive.
b. Use an apostrophe to mark omissions in contractions and numbers.
c. Do not use an apostrophe in certain situations.
d. Avoid common misuses of the apostrophe.

P5 Quotation marks

a. Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations.
b. Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within quotation.
c. Use quotation marks around the titles of short works.
d. Quotation marks may be used to set off words used as words.
e. Use punctuation with quotation marks according to convention.
f. Avoid common misuses of quotation marks.

P6 Other punctuation marks

a. End punctuation.
b. The dash, parentheses, and brackets.
c. The ellipsis mark.
d. The slash.

P7 Spelling and hyphenation

a. Become familiar with the major spelling rules.
b. Understand words that sound alike but have different meanings.
c. Be alert to commonly misspelled words.
d. Consult the dictionary to determine how to treat a compound word.
e. Hyphenate two or more words used together as an adjective before a noun.
f. Hyphenate fractions and certain numbers when they are spelled out.
g. Use a hyphen with certain prefixes and suffixes.
h. Use a hyphen in certain words to avoid ambiguity.
i. Check for correct word breaks when words must be divided at the end of a line.

P8 Capitalization

a. Capitalize proper nouns and words derived from them; do not capitalize common nouns.
b. Capitalize titles of persons when used as part of a proper name but usually not when used alone.
c. Capitalize titles according to convention.
d. Capitalize the first word of sentence.
e. Capitalize the first word of a quoted sentence but not a quoted word or phrase.
f. Know your options when the first word after a colon begins an independent clause.

P9 Abbreviations and numbers

a. Use common abbreviations for titles immediately before and after proper names.
b. Use abbreviations only when you are sure your readers will understand them.
c. Avoid texting abbreviations in college writing.
d. Use BCE, CE, a.m., p.m., No., and $ only with specific dates, times, numbers, and amounts.
e. Understand units of measurement.
f. Be sparing in your use of Latin abbreviations.
g. Follow other conventions for abbreviations.
h. Follow the conventions in your discipline for spelling out or using numerals to express numbers.
i. Use numerals according to convention in dates, addresses, and so on.

P10 Italics

a. Italicize the titles of works according to convention.
b. Italicize other terms according to convention.

B | Basic Grammar

B1 Parts of speech

a. Nouns.
b. Pronouns.
c. Verbs.
d. Adjectives.
e. Adverbs.
f. Prepositions.
g. Conjunctions.
h. Interjections.

B2 Sentence patterns

a. Subjects.
b. Verbs, objects, and complements.

B3 Subordinate word groups

a. Prepositional phrases.
b. Verbal phrases.
c. Appositive phrases.
d. Absolute phrases.
e. Subordinate clauses.

B4 Sentence types

a. Sentence structures.
b. Sentence purposes.

I | Index

Authors

Diana Hacker

Diana Hacker personally class-tested her handbooks with nearly four thousand students over thirty-five years at Prince George's Community College in Maryland, where she was a member of the English faculty. Hacker handbooks, built on innovation and on a keen understanding of the challenges facing student writers, are the most widely adopted in America. Hacker handbooks, all published by Bedford/St. Martin's, include A Writer's Reference, Eleventh Edition (2025); A Pocket Style Manual, Tenth Edition (2025); The Bedford Handbook, Twelfth Edition (2023); Rules for Writers, Tenth Edition (2022); and Writer’s Help 2.0, Hacker Version.

Nancy Sommers

Nancy Sommers, who has taught composition and directed composition programs for thirty years, now teaches in Harvard's Graduate School of Education. She led Harvard's Expository Writing Program for twenty years, directing the first-year writing program and establishing Harvard's WAC program. A two-time Braddock Award winner, Sommers is well known for her research and publications on student writing. Her articles “Revision Strategies of Student and Experienced Writers” and “Responding to Student Writing” are two of the most widely read and anthologized articles in the field of composition. Recently she has been exploring different audiences through publishing in popular media. Sommers is the lead author on Hacker handbooks, all published by Bedford/St. Martin’s, and editor of Tiny Teaching Stories on Macmillan Learning's Bits Blog.

The handbook that boosts the other AI – academic intelligence

C | Composing and Revising

C1 Planning

a. Build your academic intelligence.
b. Assess your writing situation.
c. Explore your subject.
d. Draft and revise a working thesis statement.
e Draft a plan.

C2 Drafting

a. Draft an introduction.
b. Draft the body.
c. Draft a conclusion.

C3 Writing paragraphs

a. Focus on a main point.
b. Develop the main point.
c. Make paragraphs coherent.
d. If necessary, adjust paragraph length.
e. Choose a suitable strategy for developing paragraphs.

C4 Reviewing, revising, and editing

a. Use peer review: Give constructive comments.
b. Learn from peer review: Revise with comments.
c. Reflect on comments: Develop a revision plan.
d. One student’s peer review process.
e. Approach global revision in cycles.
f. Revise globally by making a reverse outline.
g. Revise and edit sentences.
h. Proofread and format your work.
i. Sample student revision: Literacy narrative.

C5 Reflecting on your writing; preparing a portfolio

a. Reflect on your writing.
b. Prepare a portfolio.
c. Student writing: Reflective letter for a portfolio.

A | Academic Reading and Writing

A1 Reading and writing critically

a. Read actively.
b. Outline a text to identify main ideas.
c. Summarize to deepen your understanding.
d. Analyze to demonstrate your critical thinking.
e. Sample student essay: Analysis of an article.

A2 Reading and writing about multimodal texts

a. Read actively.
b. Summarize a multimodal text to deepen your understanding.
c Analyze a multimodal text to demonstrate your critical reading.
d Sample student writing: Analysis of an advertisement.

A3 Reading arguments

a. Read with an open mind and a critical eye.
b. Evaluate ethical, logical, and emotional appeals as a reader.
c. Evaluate the evidence behind an argument.
d. Identify underlying assumptions.
e. Evaluate how fairly a writer handles opposing views.

A4 Writing arguments

a Identify your purpose and context.
b. View your audience as skeptical readers.
c. Build common ground with your audience.
d. In your introduction, establish credibility and state your position.
e. Back up your thesis with persuasive lines of argument.
f. Support your thesis with specific evidence.
g. Anticipate objections; counter opposing arguments.
h. Sample student writing: Argument.

A5 Writing in the disciplines

a. Find commonalities across disciplines.
b. Recognize the questions writers in a discipline ask.
c. Understand the kinds of evidence writers in a discipline use.
d. Become familiar with a discipline’s language conventions.
e. Use a discipline’s preferred citation style.

R| Researched writing

R1 Thinking like a researcher; gathering sources

a. Manage the project.
b. Ask questions worth exploring.
c. Map out a search strategy.
d. Search efficiently; master a few shortcuts to finding good sources.
e. Keep yourself on track with a research proposal.
f. Conduct field research, if appropriate.

R2 Managing information; taking notes responsibly

a. Maintain a working bibliography.
b. Keep track of source materials.
c. As you take notes, avoid unintentional plagiarism.

R3 Evaluating sources

a. Evaluate the reliability and usefulness of sources.
b. Read with an open mind and a critical eye.
c. Assess sources for reliability and purpose.
d. Construct an annotated bibliography.

MLA | MLA Style

List of MLA in-text citation models

List of MLA works cited models

MLA-1 Supporting a thesis

a. Form a working thesis.
b. Organize your ideas with a rough outline.
c. Consider how sources will contribute to your essay.

MLA-2 Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism

a. Understand how the MLA system works.
b. Understand what plagiarism is.
c. Use quotation marks around borrowed language.
d. Put summaries and paraphrases in your own words.

MLA-3 Integrating sources

a. Summarize and paraphrase effectively.
b. Use quotations effectively.
c. Use signal phrases to integrate sources.
d. Synthesize sources.

MLA-4 Documenting sources

a. MLA in-text citations.
b. MLA list of works cited.
c. MLA information notes. (optional)

MLA-5 MLA format; sample research essay

a. MLA format.
b. Sample research essay in MLA style.

APA CMS | APA Style and CMS Style

List of APA in-text citation models

List of APA reference list models

APA-1 Supporting a thesis

a. Form a working thesis.
b. Organize your ideas.
c. Consider how sources will contribute to your essay.

APA-2 Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism

a. Understand how the APA system works.
b. Understand what plagiarism is.
c. Use quotation marks around borrowed language.
d. Put summaries and paraphrases in your own words.

APA-3 Integrating sources

a. Summarize and paraphrase effectively.
b. Use quotations effectively.
c. Use signal phrases to integrate sources.
d. Synthesize sources.

APA-4 Documenting sources

a. APA in-text citations.
b. APA list of references.

APA-5 APA format; sample research essay

a. APA format.
b. Sample research essay in APA style.

CMS (Chicago) style

List of CMS-style notes and bibliography entries

CMS-1 Supporting a thesis

a. Form a working thesis.
b. Organize your ideas.
c. Consider how sources will contribute to your essay.

CMS-2 Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism

a. Use the CMS system for citing sources.
b. Understand what plagiarism is.
c. Use quotation marks around borrowed language.
d. Put summaries and paraphrases in your own words.

CMS-3 Integrating sources

a. Use quotations effectively.
b. Use signal phrases to integrate sources.

CMS-4 Documenting sources

a. First and later notes for a source.
b. CMS-style bibliography.
c. Model notes and bibliography entries.

CMS-5 Chicago format; sample research essay

a. CMS format.
b. Sample pages from a Chicago-style essay.

S | Sentence Style

S1 Parallelism

a. Balance parallel ideas in a series.
b. Balance parallel ideas presented as pairs.
c Repeat function words to clarify parallels.

S2 Needed words

a. Add words needed to complete compound structures.
b. Add the word that where needed for clarity.
c. Add words needed to make comparisons logical and complete.
d. Add the articles a, an, and the where necessary for grammatical completeness.

S3 Problems with modifiers

a. Put limiting modifiers in front of the words they modify.
b. Place phrases and clauses so that readers can see at a glance what they modify.
c. Move awkwardly placed modifiers.
d. Avoid split infinitives when they are awkward.
e. Repair dangling modifiers.

S4 Shifts

a. Make the point of view consistent in person and number.
b. Maintain consistent verb tenses.
c. Make verbs consistent in voice.
d. Avoid sudden shifts from indirect to direct questions or quotations.

S5 Mixed constructions

a. Untangle the grammatical structure.
b. Straighten out the logical connections.
c. Avoid is when, is where, and reason . . . is because constructions

S6 Sentence emphasis

a. Coordinate equal ideas; subordinate minor ideas.
b. Combine choppy sentences.
c. Avoid ineffective and excessive coordination.
d. Do not subordinate major ideas.
e. Do not subordinate excessively.
f. Experiment with techniques for gaining emphasis.

S7 Sentence variety

a. Vary your sentence openings.
b. Use a variety of sentence structures.
c. Try inverting sentences occasionally.

W | Word Choice

W1 Glossary of usage

W2 Wordy sentences

a. Eliminate redundancies.
b. Avoid unnecessary repetition of words.
c. Cut empty or inflated phrases.
d. Simplify the structure.
e. Reduce clauses to phrases, phrases to single words.

W3 Active verbs

a. Choose active voice or passive voice depending on your writing situation.
b. Replace be verbs that result in dull or wordy sentences.
c. As a rule, choose a subject that names the person or thing doing the action.

W4 Language that fits the writing situation

a. Avoid jargon, except in specialized writing situations.
b. Avoid most euphemisms and doublespeak.
c. In most contexts, avoid slang.
d. Choose a level of formality that fits the writing situation.
e. Avoid sexist and noninclusive language.

W5 Exact language

a. Select words with their connotations in mind.
b. Prefer specific, concrete nouns.
c. Do not misuse words.
d. Use common idioms.
e. Do not rely heavily on clichés.
f. Use figures of speech with care.

G | Grammatical Sentences

G1 Subject-verb agreement

a. Learn to recognize typical subject-verb combinations.
b. Make the verb agree with its subject, not with a word the comes between.
c. Treat most subjects joined with and as plural.
d. With subjects joined with or or nor (or with either. . .or or neither. . .nor), make the verb agree with the part of the subject nearer to the verb.
e. Treat most indefinite pronouns as singular.
f. Treat collective nouns as singular unless the meaning is clearly plural.
g. Make the verb agree with its subject even when the subject follows the verb.
h. Make the verb agree with its subject, not with a subject complement.
i. Who, which and that take verbs that agree with their antecedents.
j. Words such as athletics, economics, physics, statistics, and news are usually singular, despite their plural form.
k. Titles of works, company names, words mentioned as words, and gerund phrases are singular.

G2 Verb form, tenses, and moods

a. Choose among the forms of irregular verbs.
b. Distinguish among the forms of lie and lay.
c. Use -s (or -es) endings on present-tense verbs that have third-person singular subjects.
d. Do not omit -ed endings on verbs.
e. Do not omit needed verbs.
f. Choose the verb tense that suits your meaning.
g. Use the subjunctive mood in the few contexts that require it.

G3 Pronouns

a. Make pronouns and antecedents agree.
b. Make pronoun references clear.
c. Distinguish between pronouns such as I and me.
d. Distinguish between who and whom.

G4 Adjectives and adverbs

a. Use adjectives to modify nouns.
b. Use adverbs to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
c. Distinguish between good and well, bad and badly.
d. Use comparatives and superlatives with care.
e. Avoid double negatives.

G5 Sentence fragments

a. Test for sentence completeness.
b. Attach fragmented subordinate clauses or turn them into sentences.
c. Attach fragmented phrases or turn them into sentences.
d. Attach other fragmented word groups or turn them into sentences.
e. Exception: A fragment may be used for effect.

G6 Run-on sentences

a. Recognize run-on sentences.
b. Consider separating the clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.
c. Consider separating the clauses with a semicolon, a colon, or a dash.
d. Consider making the clauses into separate sentences.
e. Consider restructuring the sentence, perhaps by subordinating one of the clauses.

M | Multilingual Writers and ESL Topics

M1 Verbs

a. Use an appropriate verb form and tense.
b.For a verb in the passive voice, use a form of be with the past participle.
c. Use the base form of the verb after a modal.
d. To make negative verb forms, add not in the appropriate place.
e. In a conditional sentence, choose verb tenses according to the type of condition.
f. Become familiar with verbs that may be followed by gerunds or infinitives.

M2 Articles

a. Be familiar with articles and other noun markers.
b. Use the with most specific common nouns.
c. Use a (or an) with common singular count nouns that refer to “one” or “any.”
d. Use a quantifier such as some or more, not a or an, with a noncount noun to express an approximate amount.
e. Do not use articles with nouns that refer to all of something or to something in general.
f. Do not use articles with most singular proper nouns. Use the with most plural proper nouns.

M3 Sentence structure

a. Use a linking verb between a subject and its complement.
b. Include a subject in every sentence.
c. Do not use both a noun and a pronoun to perform the same grammatical function in a sentence.
d. Do not repeat a subject, an object, or an adverb in an adjective clause.
e. Avoid mixed constructions beginning with although or because.
f. Do not place an adverb between a verb and its direct object.

M4 Using adjectives

a. Distinguish between present participles and past participles used as adjectives.
b. Place cumulative adjectives in an appropriate order.

M5 Prepositions and idiomatic expressions

a. Become familiar with prepositions that show time and place.
b. Use nouns (including -ing forms) after prepositions.
c. Become familiar with common adjective + preposition combinations.
d. Become familiar with common verb + preposition combinations.

M6 Paraphrasing sources effectively

a. Avoid replacing a source’s words with synonyms.
b. Determine the meaning of the original source.
c. Present the author’s meaning in your own words.

P | Punctuation and Mechanics

P1 The comma

a. Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction joining independent clauses.
b. Use a comma after an introductory clause or phrase.
c. Use a comma between items in a series.
d. Use a comma between coordinate adjectives not joined with and. Do not use a comma between cumulative adjectives.
e. Use commas to set off nonrestrictive (nonessential) elements. Do not use commas to set off restrictive (essential) elements.
f. Use commas to set off transitional and parenthetical expressions, absolute phrases, and word groups expressing contrast.
g. Use commas to set off nouns of direct address, yes/no, interrogative tags, and mild interjections.
h. Use commas with expressions such as he said to set off direct quotations.
i. Use commas with dates, addresses, titles, and numbers.

P2 Unnecessary commas

a. Do not use a comma with a coordinating conjunction that joins only two words, phrases, or subordinate clauses.
b. Do not use a comma to separate a verb from its subject or object.
c. Do not use a comma before the first or after the last item in a series.
d. Do not use a comma between cumulative adjectives, between an adjective and a noun, or between an adverb and an adjective.
e. Do not use commas to set off restrictive elements.
f. Do not use commas to set off a concluding adverb clause that is essential to the meaning.
g. Do not use a comma after a phrase that begins an inverted sentence.
h. Avoid other common misuses of the comma.

P3 The semicolon and the colon

a. Use a semicolon between closely related independent clauses.
b. Use a semicolon between items in a series containing internal punctuation.
c. Avoid common misuses of the semicolon.
d. Use a colon after an independent clause for a list, an appositive, a quotation, or a summary.
e. Use a colon according to convention.
f. Avoid common misuses of the colon.

P4 The apostrophe

a. Use an apostrophe to indicate that a noun is possessive.
b. Use an apostrophe to mark omissions in contractions and numbers.
c. Do not use an apostrophe in certain situations.
d. Avoid common misuses of the apostrophe.

P5 Quotation marks

a. Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations.
b. Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within quotation.
c. Use quotation marks around the titles of short works.
d. Quotation marks may be used to set off words used as words.
e. Use punctuation with quotation marks according to convention.
f. Avoid common misuses of quotation marks.

P6 Other punctuation marks

a. End punctuation.
b. The dash, parentheses, and brackets.
c. The ellipsis mark.
d. The slash.

P7 Spelling and hyphenation

a. Become familiar with the major spelling rules.
b. Understand words that sound alike but have different meanings.
c. Be alert to commonly misspelled words.
d. Consult the dictionary to determine how to treat a compound word.
e. Hyphenate two or more words used together as an adjective before a noun.
f. Hyphenate fractions and certain numbers when they are spelled out.
g. Use a hyphen with certain prefixes and suffixes.
h. Use a hyphen in certain words to avoid ambiguity.
i. Check for correct word breaks when words must be divided at the end of a line.

P8 Capitalization

a. Capitalize proper nouns and words derived from them; do not capitalize common nouns.
b. Capitalize titles of persons when used as part of a proper name but usually not when used alone.
c. Capitalize titles according to convention.
d. Capitalize the first word of sentence.
e. Capitalize the first word of a quoted sentence but not a quoted word or phrase.
f. Know your options when the first word after a colon begins an independent clause.

P9 Abbreviations and numbers

a. Use common abbreviations for titles immediately before and after proper names.
b. Use abbreviations only when you are sure your readers will understand them.
c. Avoid texting abbreviations in college writing.
d. Use BCE, CE, a.m., p.m., No., and $ only with specific dates, times, numbers, and amounts.
e. Understand units of measurement.
f. Be sparing in your use of Latin abbreviations.
g. Follow other conventions for abbreviations.
h. Follow the conventions in your discipline for spelling out or using numerals to express numbers.
i. Use numerals according to convention in dates, addresses, and so on.

P10 Italics

a. Italicize the titles of works according to convention.
b. Italicize other terms according to convention.

B | Basic Grammar

B1 Parts of speech

a. Nouns.
b. Pronouns.
c. Verbs.
d. Adjectives.
e. Adverbs.
f. Prepositions.
g. Conjunctions.
h. Interjections.

B2 Sentence patterns

a. Subjects.
b. Verbs, objects, and complements.

B3 Subordinate word groups

a. Prepositional phrases.
b. Verbal phrases.
c. Appositive phrases.
d. Absolute phrases.
e. Subordinate clauses.

B4 Sentence types

a. Sentence structures.
b. Sentence purposes.

I | Index

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Diana Hacker

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